Chronic axillary wounds in cats: what do we know and how should we manage them?

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE: Axillary wounds most often occur in outdoor cats that wear a collar, typically after having been missing. These wounds are commonly chronic and indolent in nature, and although there is so far no consensus on an explanation for this, it is likely that there are several factors involved. CLINICAL CHALLENGES: Axillary wounds are often difficult to manage due to the frequent presence of infection, their histopathological characteristics and their location, where there is excessive tension and movement of the axillary tissues. Initial surgical treatment has a high reported incidence of failure and complications in the literature, with wound breakdown reported most commonly. Giving due consideration to the difficulties of managing these wounds, however, will help practitioners to decrease the occurrence of complications and the need for multiple procedures, and therefore improve the outcome. EQUIPMENT: Initial approach and surgical management can be achieved using standard medical equipment and surgical kit available to general practitioners. EVIDENCE BASE: This review discusses the surgical techniques reported in the literature to have successfully treated chronic axillary wounds and recommendations are also provided based on the authors' clinical experience.

A Wise Surgical Approach for Reconstruction of Postburn Axillary Contractures and Versatility of Perforator Flaps.

Postburn axillary adduction contractures should essentially be released for adequate shoulder function. Many methods have been described for this purpose. However, use of perforator flaps prevents harm to the underlying muscle and provides thin, pliable skin flaps. Despite the major advantages offered by perforator flaps, certain shortcomings of perforator flap surgery restrict their widespread use by inexperienced surgeons, including anatomic variations of perforator vessels. In order to rule out these shortcomings, we devised a new surgical approach with an initial incision that provides access to possible perforator systems on the dorsolateral thoracic area. The approach can easily be converted to a fasciocutaneous transposition flap when attempts for identification of a proper perforator fail. Nevertheless, a proper perforator can easily be reached through the exposure provided by this initial incision. With the intention of using perforator-based flap for reconstruction, we used this surgical approach for coverage in 14 cases of postburn axillary contractures. In 3 cases, conversions of the initial incision to local transposition flap (parascapular flap) were required. There was only 2 tip necrosis observed, which healed with secondary intention. Our current surgical approach may offer taking the advantages of using a true perforator flap for reconstruction while avoiding a second stress on the patient when an operative plan for perforator flap harvest fails.

Pediatric Burn Reconstruction: Focus on Evidence.

In this article, the author surveys the best available evidence to guide decision-making in pediatric burn reconstruction. Evidence-based protocols are examined in the context of optimizing form and function in children who have sustained burn injury.

Anterolateral Thigh Flap for Reconstruction in Postburn Axillary Contractures.

BACKGROUND: Reconstruction of postburn axillary contractures is difficult and particularly challenging without healthy adjacent soft tissue for axillary scar resurfacing. In this case, a free soft-tissue transfer is among the best treatment options. Here, we describe our experience with free anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap for reconstruction in postburn axillary contractures. METHODS: We enrolled 10 patients with postburn axillary contractures from August 2003 to July 2015. They all underwent wide scar contracture release through a transverse incision from the anterior axillary fold to the posterior axillary fold. The ALT flap was subfascially raised. The huge soft tissue defect after scar release was resurfaced with the ALT flap. RESULTS: Eight male patients and 2 female patients (age, 16-64 years; mean, 46 years) were included. The mean total burn surface area, follow-up time, duration between injury onset and free-flap transfer surgery, and flap size were 48%, 27 months, 7.7 months, and 12 × 23 cm, respectively. The most common recipient vessels were the thoracodorsal artery and vein (77%). The mean improvement in the range of motion of shoulder abduction was 86 degrees (range, 60-130 degrees). The mean operative time was 7 hours. All flaps survived without reexploration or failure. All but 1 donor site was managed by split-thickness skin grafting. No infection, hematoma, or deaths were noted postoperatively. Transient brachial palsy was noted in a 16-year-old male patient postoperatively, with full recovery 3 months after. CONCLUSIONS: For postburn axillary contractures without healthy adjacent soft tissue for scar resurfacing, ALT flap reconstruction represents a suitable treatment option. It allows simultaneous surgery on both the donor and recipient sites, without the need to change the patient's position. Furthermore, the ALT flap provides sufficient soft tissue and blood flow for reconstruction, leading to satisfactory functional outcomes.

A stab wound to the axilla illustrating the importance of brachial plexus anatomy in an emergency context: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Although open injuries involving the brachial plexus are relatively uncommon, they can lead to permanent disability and even be life threatening if accompanied by vascular damage. We present a case report of a brachial plexus injury in which the urgency of the situation precluded the use of any ancillary diagnostic examinations and forced a rapid clinical assessment. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a case of a Portuguese man who had a stabbing injury at the base of his left axilla. On observation in our emergency room an acute venous type of bleeding was present at the wound site and, as a result of refractory hypotension after initial management with fluids administered intravenously, he was immediately carried to our operating room. During the course of transportation, we observed that he presented hypoesthesia of the medial aspect of his arm and forearm, as well as of the ulnar side of his hand and of the palmar aspect of the last three digits and of the dorsal aspect of the last two digits. Moreover, he was not able to actively flex the joints of his middle, ring, and small fingers or to adduct or abduct all fingers. Exclusively relying on our anatomical knowledge of the axillary region, the site of the stabbing wound, and the physical neurologic examination, we were able to unequivocally pinpoint the place of the injury between the anterior division of the lower trunk of his brachial plexus and the proximal portion of the following nerves: ulnar, medial cutaneous of his arm and forearm, and the medial aspect of his median nerve. Surgery revealed a longitudinal laceration of the posterior aspect of his axillary vein, and confirmed a complete section of his ulnar nerve, his medial brachial and antebrachial cutaneous nerves, and an incomplete section of the ulnar aspect of his median nerve. All structures were repaired microsurgically. Three years after the surgery he showed a good functional outcome. CONCLUSIONS: We believe that this case report illustrates the relevance of a sound anatomical knowledge of the brachial plexus in an emergency setting.

STARplasty for Reconstruction of the Burned Axilla.

BACKGROUND: Postburn axillary contractures are common and significantly impact quality of life. Simple release combined with split thickness skin grafting necessitates a donor site, requires immobilization, and may result in poor functional outcome. Common methods of adjacent tissue rearrangement are not well designed to treat broad linear contractures. Flaps from the back, flank, or arm can be used, but may come with significant donor site morbidity. We demonstrate the use of the STARplasty, a novel adjacent tissue rearrangement initially developed to treat neosyndactyly, as a useful reconstructive option for the release of Kurtzman type 1 posterior or anterior axillary contractures. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed to identify patients who underwent STARplasties for treatment of type 1 axillary burn contractures. All reconstructions were performed by a single surgeon at a single ABA burn center (April 2011 to December 2015). A version of the surgical STARplasty technique previously described for treatment of neosyndactyly was modified for use in the axilla. Patient and injury demographics, as well as complications and outcome, were collected. RESULTS: Twelve patients with upper extremity burns underwent 16 primary STARplasties for treatment of axillary contractures. Three patients underwent simultaneous bilateral procedures. The majority (15/16) of the primary procedures were used to address contractures of the anterior axillary fold. Mean patient age was 51 (R 38-63) and average burn size was 35% (R 18-80). Average time from initial injury to primary reconstruction was 11.1 months (R 3-54). One patient required revision for persistent contracture and another experienced wound dehiscence that ultimately required split-thickness skin grafting. No other significant complications were noted, and all remaining patients had closed wounds and full range of motion by 30 days postprocedure. CONCLUSIONS: Axillary contractures remain common despite improvements in physical/occupational therapy. While common techniques, such as z-plasty, continue to be helpful for the surgical release of narrow contractures with bilateral laxity, axillary contractures are typically broad based and often contain only unilateral unburned tissue. Based on our experience, the axillary STARplasty represents a safe and efficacious technique to be considered in the case of broad-based contractures involving either the anterior or posterior axillary fold.

Zetaplastia na retração axilar: técnica e tática para facilitar o aprendizado dos residentes / Z-plasty in axillary retraction: techniques and strategies to facilitate learning by medical residents

Introdução: São apresentados dois casos de retração em região axilar após queimadura em que a correção cirúrgica foi realizada empregando-se zetaplastias múltiplas. Apresentamos uma tática de marcação que visa facilitar o aprendizado desse procedimento pelos residentes de Cirurgia Plástica. Métodos: Dois pacientes com retrações axilares e de membros superiores após queimadura com líquido aquecido foram submetidos à correção cirúrgica empregando-se a zetaplastia múltipla. A tática de planejamento proposta nesse estudo preconiza primeiro a marcação do retalho triangular localizado no ponto médio da retração axilar, o qual irá avançar e cruzar o eixo da cicatriz, e a partir daí o desenho dos retalhos subsequentes com ângulo de 60° entre si. Acreditamos que essa sistematização da marcação facilita o planejamento e aprendizado da plástica em Z. Resultados: Os pacientes apresentaram adequadas amplitude de movimento e recuperação funcional do membro acometido no pós-operatório. Não houve necrose das extremidades dos retalhos, que preconizamos serem cuidadosamente trabalhadas e um pouco arredondadas; e a execução do procedimento foi simples devido à tática de marcação que aplicamos. Conclusão: A tática de marcação que apresentamos é reprodutível e de fácil aprendizado. A zetaplastia múltipla foi eficaz em restabelecer a amplitude de movimento das áreas com sequela de queimadura tratadas com esse método.

Introduction: Herein, we present two cases of post-burn retraction of the axillary region, which were subsequently surgically corrected using multiple Z-plasties. We present a marking strategy to facilitate the learning of this procedure by plastic surgery residents. Methods: Two patients with axillary and upper limb retractions due to burns with hot liquids were surgically treated using multiple Z-plasties. The strategy proposed in this study recommends the marking of the triangular flap located at the midpoint of the axillary retraction, which then advances and crosses the axis of the scar. Then, subsequent flaps are made at an angle of 60° to each other. We believe that this systematization of marking facilitates the planning and learning of Z-plasty. Results: The study patients achieved an adequate range of motion and functional recovery of the affected limb postoperatively. We observed no cases of necrosis of the flap ends, which should be carefully worked and slightly rounded. The execution of the procedure was simple using the suggested marking strategy. Conclusion: The presented marking strategy was reproducible and easy to learn. Multiple Z-plasties were effective in restoring the range of motion of the areas affected by burns that were treated using this method.

Breast cancer: news in diagnosis and treatment / Câncer de mama: novidades no diagnóstico e no tratamento

SUMMARY The authors discuss the main innovations in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer, particularly in diagnostic imaging and screening, and in locoregional and systemic therapies.

RESUMO Os autores discutem as principais novidades no diagnóstico e no tratamento do câncer de mama, particularmente no diagnóstico por imagem, no rastreamento e nas terapêuticas locorregional e sistêmica.

Breast cancer: news in diagnosis and treatment.

The authors discuss the main innovations in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer, particularly in diagnostic imaging and screening, and in locoregional and systemic therapies.

Common postburn deformities and their management.

This article describes a practical, clinically based approach to classification of postburn deformities. Burn scar contractures are of either the broad diffuse type or linear band-like type. The former generally respond well to release and insertion of a skin graft or substitute, whereas the latter are generally repaired using a simple or modified Z-plasty or a transpositional flap technique. The pulsed dye laser is a promising technique used to reduce scar thickness and redness. Postburn deformities of the face, upper and lower extremities, and trunk are discussed, in addition to novel techniques for vascularized composite allotransplantation of the face.

An extraordinary case of axillary contracture: trapped healthy skin and its adnexes under contracted scar.

Although striking improvements have been achieved in overall management of burn injury, postburn contractures are still an ongoing challenge to burn surgeons. Axillary adduction contracture is one of the most common types of these disabling postburn complications that usually result from suboptimal treatment after acute burns. An unusual and complicated case of axillary contracture in which the unburned, healthy axillary dome skin was trapped as a cystic mass under the scarred area was reconstructed by transfer of a big (17×13-cm) thoracodorsal artery perforator flap after contracture release. The result was satisfactory in terms of function and acceptable cosmetically. The underlying reasons for the inadequate treatment the patient received after surviving a severe electrical injury were discussed.

Spontaneous rupture of a posttraumatic aneurysm of the axillary artery-a rare cause of hemorrhagic shock in children.

Posttraumatic aneurysms of the axillary artery are extremely scarce. In pediatrics, no similar case has been described. Injuries of axillary artery are often associated with ischemic complications, whereas the bleeding risks are not well documented. We report the case of a 5-year-old boy who was admitted with a scapular pulsatile lump 2 weeks after a domestic accident. During his stay, he suddenly presented a hemorrhagic shock. The patient was immediately admitted to the operating room to undergo surgical hemostasis and was then transferred to intensive care unit to stabilize his vital functions. This case shows the possibility of spontaneous and life-threatening acute bleeding of posttraumatic aneurysms of the axillary artery.

Ultrasound imaging of the axillary nerve and its role in the diagnosis of traumatic impairment.

PURPOSE: The axillary nerve (AN) is frequently injured during shoulder trauma and imaging is required to define the site and extent of nerve injury. However, the AN has a rather complex course through several soft tissue compartments of the shoulder and axilla. Therefore, imaging of the nerve with MRI and sonography is troublesome. Thus detection and sonographic assessment bases on thorough knowledge of local topography. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This investigation aimed at defining reliable anatomical landmarks for AN-sonography in 5 volunteers and later validating the proposed sonographic examination protocol in 10 unselected patients. RESULTS: With strict adherence to the proposed examination algorithm, sonography of the AN was feasible in all volunteers and patients. Furthermore, sonographic findings correlated nicely with the golden standard "surgical exploration" concerning severity and topography of neural impairment. CONCLUSION: Based on our study results we propose our algorithm for AN-sonography as the first-line imaging tool for the assessment of axillary nerve trauma.

Parálisis aislada del nervio circunflejo en deportistas de contacto / Isolated axillary nerve palsy in contact sports

Introducción: La parálisis del nervio circunflejo es la más frecuente entre los nervios periféricos del hombro. Esta lesión de difícil diagnóstico, implica una seria complicación en los deportes de contacto. El objetivo de éste trabajo es reportar los resultados del tratamiento conservador de 18 casos de parálisis aislada del nervio circunflejo causada por traumatismos directos del hombro en deportistas de contacto, sin luxación glenohumeral. Material y Método: Se evaluaron retrospectivamente con un seguimiento mínimo de 2 años, 18 jugadores de rugby, con diagnóstico de parálisis post-traumática del nervio circunflejo. Se evaluó la recuperación de la función, la fuerza y sensibilidad del músculo deltoides y el tiempo en retorno a la actividad deportiva. Todos los pacientes fueron evaluados con el score de ASES. Resultados: La función y la fuerza del músculo deltoides se recuperaron totalmente en 13 pacientes...

Long-term follow-up results of a pediatric brachial plexus laceration.

A rare case of pediatric brachial plexus laceration is presented. A five-year-old boy who sustained a sharp laceration on his right axillary region was immediately operated. The axillary artery, radial, ulnar and musculocutaneous nerve branches of the brachial plexus, and the lateral root of the median nerve were totally lacerated. The medial root of the median nerve was partially transected. All of the lacerated brachial plexus elements and axillary artery were immediately repaired. Significant functional recovery was determined even six months after the repair. Motor and sensory functions of the affected extremity were almost totally restored at the postoperative 21st month, except for the ulnar nerve motor functions. There was no cold intolerance or trophic change at the injured extremity. Primary repair of a brachial plexus laceration injury in the pediatric population can be expected to produce successful functional recovery results, even in a relatively short period after the repair.

Axillary arteriovenous fistula after axillary plexus block.

This report presents the case of a 51-year-old man who had an axillary arteriovenous fistula (AVF) as a complication of an axillary plexus block that was performed for internal fixation for a right forefinger phalanx fracture 4 years previously. While performing the axillary plexus block, a 22-gauge needle was placed inside the axillary sheath by observing the pulsations of the axillary artery. A pulsatile mass was found in the right axilla 1 day after the block was performed. Apart from this soft mass, the patient had no symptoms of vascular nerve damage. As the mass gradually increased in size, it became painful. During the past 3 months, in particular, the patient experienced repeated attacks of intermittent sharp pain and requested surgery. Digital subtraction angiography, performed 4 years after the axillary block, showed a tumor-like dilation was developing in both the right axillary artery and vein, almost simultaneously. Thus, the diagnosis of AVF was confirmed. The false aneurysm sac was excised and lateral repair of the axillary artery and vein was carried out under general anesthesia. Postoperative recovery was uneventful. The possible occurrence of an AVF after axillary plexus block should be kept in mind, because early diagnosis and treatment are necessary to avoid development of AVF and false aneurysm.

Isolated axillary artery injury due to blunt trauma in ice hockey.

We report the first case of a purely isolated axillary artery dissection because of focal blunt trauma to the axilla. A 42-year-old man presented to our outpatient orthopedic clinic 7 days after a fall during a hockey game whereby another player's skate blade struck the patient directly in the axilla without disrupting the skin. The patient denied having any symptoms of shoulder dislocation but experienced some pain and numbness, which subsided rapidly. Then he developed a cool hand with exertional claudication. Physical examination revealed absent radial and brachial pulses. Computed tomographic angiography demonstrated dissection of the distal axillary artery extending to the middle two-thirds of the brachial artery. Following urgent consultation with vascular surgery, the patient was treated operatively with reverse saphenous interpositional grafting and embolectomy. This case illustrates the need to have a heightened index of suspicion to all injuries to the axilla and the importance of performing careful soft tissue and neurovascular examinations in hockey players presenting with shoulder complaints, even when bony injury is not present.

Long-term postoperative outcomes after axillary contracture release in children with burns.

Children with upper extremity burns frequently develop axillary contractures that can restrict movement. Surgical axillary contracture release is performed to restore function. The purpose of this study is to determine the long-term effects (up to 7 years) of surgical axillary contracture release on upper extremity motion during simulated activities of daily living using three-dimensional motion analysis. Motion analysis was conducted on 10 subjects (9 males and 1 female; 16 axillary contractures; mean age 10 ± 3 years at baseline; mean TBSA burn 40 ± 15%) before, 1 year after, and 2 to 7 years (mean 3 ± 2 years) after axillary contracture release with split-thickness skin graft surgery. Movements were analyzed during three functional tasks including high reach (reaching overhead for an object), hand to head (combing hair), and hand to back pocket (toileting). Two-tailed paired t-tests were used to compare presurgical and postsurgical scores. Surgical release of the axillary contracture increased shoulder mobility and decreased compensatory movements. Improvements were maintained at long-term follow-up. All shoulder movements with the exception of shoulder flexion during the high reach task and shoulder abduction during the hand to back task were not significantly different than normal values at long-term follow-up. Axillary contracture release surgery improves shoulder function in the short and long term. Motion analysis is a modality that may prove valuable in objectively quantifying changes in movement patterns immediately and in subsequent years after burn injury.

Contractura axilar por quemadura tratada con Integra® / Axillary burn contracture treated with Integra®

Introduction: Severe axillary burn is an unusual accident that frequently evolves to contracture generating important cosmetic and functional deficiencies. Contracture scars in this region are difficult to treat because of the anatomic characteristics of the area that has multiple power vectors. Functional restoration has to be one of the main goals in the management of burns in the axilla and flaps have shown high rate of morbidity. Integra® provides satisfactory elasticity and dermal resistance which results in positive functional results. Objective: Analyze the results of the use of Integra® in axillary burn contracture scars at a specialized Burns Center. Materials and Methods: There were 4 patients who underwent reconstructive surgery using Integra® for axillary burn contractures between January 2002 and March 2006. Follow-up was divided into perioperative and late. Early follow-up checked general post-operative evolution and late follow-up was focused on functionality and patient independence evaluated using Barthel's index of daily living activities. Results: There were 3 males and 1 female, average age 27 (18-41) with a minimum follow up of 9 months. There were no perioperative complications and good or very good range of motion results. Conclusions: Our results are similar to artificial skin substitutes used in other anatomical regions.

Las quemaduras axilares severas son un accidente infrecuente que evolucionan a la retracción generando deficiencias cosméticas y funcionales. Estas cicatrices son difíciles de tratar por las características anatómicas del área, donde la corrección de un vector de movimiento puede alterar otro. Objetivo: Mostrar nuestros resultados utilizando el sustituto cutáneo Integra® en el tratamiento de cicatrices retráctiles axilares por quemadura. Pacientes y Métodos: Se recolectaron antecedentes médicos y fotográficos de pacientes portadores de cicatrices retráctiles axilares por quemadura entre enero de 2002 y marzo de 2006 en el Hospital del Trabajador de Santiago. Se evaluó pre y postoperatoriamente a los pacientes en forma subjetiva por fisiatra y con el Test de Barthel. Resultados: Se incluyeron 4 pacientes en el estudio (3 mujeres y 1 hombre), edad media 27 años (18-41). Todas las quemaduras fueron producidas por fuego. Índice de Barthel preoperatorio fue de 87,5 (levemente dependiente para las actividades de la vida diaria) y rango de movimiento moderadamente afectado. En el postoperatorio los pacientes fueron catalogados como independientes según el Test de Barthel y el rango de movimiento fue descrito como bueno o muy bueno por el fisiatra. No hubo complicaciones peri operatorias, Integra® prendió adecuadamente en todos los casos. Los pacientes fueron seguidos en promedio 16 meses (9-22). Conclusiones: Los sustitutos dérmicos han sido usados para la corrección de cicatrices de quemaduras con buenos resultados, pero no hay reportes en la axila. El pequeño número de pacientes que presentamos tienen un excelente resultado funcional, lo que nos estimula a seguir trabajando en este rumbo.