Diagnosis and treatment status of inoperable locally advanced breast cancer and the application value of inorganic nanomaterials.

Locally advanced breast cancer (LABC) is a heterogeneous group of breast cancer that accounts for 10-30% of breast cancer cases. Despite the ongoing development of current treatment methods, LABC remains a severe and complex public health concern around the world, thus prompting the urgent requirement for innovative diagnosis and treatment strategies. The primary treatment challenges are inoperable clinical status and ineffective local control methods. With the rapid advancement of nanotechnology, inorganic nanoparticles (INPs) exhibit a potential application prospect in diagnosing and treating breast cancer. Due to the unique inherent characteristics of INPs, different functions can be performed via appropriate modifications and constructions, thus making them suitable for different imaging technology strategies and treatment schemes. INPs can improve the efficacy of conventional local radiotherapy treatment. In the face of inoperable LABC, INPs have proposed new local therapeutic methods and fostered the evolution of novel strategies such as photothermal and photodynamic therapy, magnetothermal therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and multifunctional inorganic nanoplatform. This article reviews the advances of INPs in local accurate imaging and breast cancer treatment and offers insights to overcome the existing clinical difficulties in LABC management.

A Distinctive Insight into Inorganic Sonosensitizers: Design Principles and Application Domains.

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) as a promising non-invasive anti-tumor means features the preferable penetration depth, which nevertheless, usually can't work without sonosensitizers. Sonosensitizers produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of ultrasound to directly kill tumor cells, and concurrently activate anti-tumor immunity especially after integration with tumor microenvironment (TME)-engineered nanobiotechnologies and combined therapy. Current sonosensitizers are classified into organic and inorganic ones, and current most reviews only cover organic sonosensitizers and highlighted their anti-tumor applications. However, there have few specific reviews that focus on inorganic sonosensitizers including their design principles, microenvironment regulation, etc. In this review, inorganic sonosensitizers are first classified according to their design rationales rather than composition, and the action rationales and underlying chemistry features are highlighted. Afterward, what and how TME is regulated based on the inorganic sonosensitizers-based SDT nanoplatform with an emphasis on the TME targets-engineered nanobiotechnologies are elucidated. Additionally, the combined therapy and their applications in non-cancer diseases are also outlined. Finally, the setbacks and challenges, and proposed the potential solutions and future directions is pointed out. This review provides a comprehensive and detailed horizon on inorganic sonosensitizers, and will arouse more attentions on SDT.

Using semantics to scale up evidence-based chemical risk-assessments.

BACKGROUND: The manual processes used for risk assessments are not scaling to the amount of data available. Although automated approaches appear promising, they must be transparent in a public policy setting. OBJECTIVE: Our goal is to create an automated approach that moves beyond retrieval to the extraction step of the information synthesis process, where evidence is characterized as supporting, refuting, or neutral with respect to a given outcome. METHODS: We combine knowledge resources and natural language processing to resolve coordinated ellipses and thus avoid surface level differences between concepts in an ontology and outcomes in an abstract. As with a systematic review, the search criterion, and inclusion and exclusion criterion are explicit. RESULTS: The system scales to 482K abstracts on 27 chemicals. Results for three endpoints that are critical for cancer risk assessments show that refuting evidence (where the outcome decreased) was higher for cell proliferation (45.9%), and general cell changes (37.7%) than for cell death (25.0%). Moreover, cell death was the only end point where supporting claims were the majority (61.3%). If the number of abstracts that measure an outcome was used as a proxy for association there would be a stronger association with cell proliferation than cell death (20/27 chemicals). However, if the amount of supporting evidence was used (where the outcome increased) the conclusion would change for 21/27 chemicals (20 from proliferation to death and 1 from death to proliferation). CONCLUSIONS: We provide decision makers with a visual representation of supporting, neutral, and refuting evidence whilst maintaining the reproducibility and transparency needed for public policy. Our findings show that results from the retrieval step where the number of abstracts that measure an outcome are reported can be misleading if not accompanied with results from the extraction step where the directionality of the outcome is established.

Inorganic radiopharmaceutical chemistry of oxine.

8-Hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ, oxine) is a small, monoprotic, bicyclic aromatic compound and its relative donor group orientation imparts impressive bidentate metal chelating abilities that have been exploited in a vast array of applications over decades. 8-HQ and its derivatives have been explored in medicinal applications including anti-neurodegeneration, anticancer properties, and antimicrobial activities. One long established use of 8-HQ in medicinal inorganic chemistry is the coordination of radioactive isotopes of metal ions in nuclear medicine. The metal-oxine complex with the single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging isotope [111In]In3+ was developed in the 1970s and 1980s to radiolabel leukocytes for inflammation and infection imaging. The [111In][In(oxine)3] complex functions as an ionophore: a moderately stable lipophilic complex to enter cells; however, inside the cell environment [111In]In3+ undergoes exchange and remains localized. As new developments have progressed towards radiopharmaceuticals capable of both imaging and therapy (theranostics), 8-HQ has been re-explored in recent years to investigate its potential to chelate larger radiometal ions with longer half-lives and different indications. Further, metal-oxine complexes have been used to study liposomes and other nanomaterials by tracking these nanomedicines in vivo. Expanding 8-HQ to multidentate ligands for highly thermodynamically stable and kinetically inert complexes has increased the possibilities of this small molecule in nuclear medicine. This article outlines the historic use of metal-oxine complexes in inorganic radiopharmaceutical chemistry, with a focus on recent advances highlighting the possibilities of developing higher denticity, targeted bifunctional chelators with 8-HQ.

Near infrared photothermal conversion materials: mechanism, preparation, and photothermal cancer therapy applications.

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has been widely applied in cancer therapy as a result of its non-invasive, localized treatment and good therapeutic effect. In general, the final therapeutic effect of PTT mainly depends on the photothermal materials, which can be further considered to be determined by the photothermal conversion efficiency, biocompatibility, and photothermal stability of photothermal materials. In this review, photothermal materials including inorganic materials, organic materials, and organic-inorganic composite materials in recent years have been summarized in terms of the mechanism, preparation, and cancer therapy applications. In the end, the perspectives and obstacles in their further development are overviewed.

Physico-Chemical Properties of Inorganic NPs Influence the Absorption Rate of Aquatic Mosses Reducing Cytotoxicity on Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Model.

Noble metals nanoparticles (NPs) and metal oxide NPs are widely used in different fields of application and commercial products, exposing living organisms to their potential adverse effects. Recent evidences suggest their presence in the aquifers water and consequently in drinking water. In this work, we have carefully synthesized four types of NPs, namely, silver and gold NPs (Ag NPs and Au NPs) and silica and titanium dioxide NPs (SiO2 NPs and TiO2 NPs) having a similar size and negatively charged surfaces. The synthesis of Ag NPs and Au NPs was carried out by colloidal route using silver nitrate (AgNO3) and tetrachloroauric (III) acid (HAuCl4) while SiO2 NPs and TiO2 NPs were achieved by ternary microemulsion and sol-gel routes, respectively. Once the characterization of NPs was carried out in order to assess their physico-chemical properties, their impact on living cells was studied. We used the human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2), known as the best representative intestinal epithelial barrier model to understand the effects triggered by NPs through ingestion. Then, we moved to explore how water contamination caused by NPs can be lowered by the ability of three species of aquatic moss, namely, Leptodictyum riparium, Vesicularia ferriei, and Taxiphyllum barbieri, to absorb them. The experiments were conducted using two concentrations of NPs (100 µM and 500 Μm as metal content) and two time points (24 h and 48 h), showing a capture rate dependent on the moss species and NPs type. Then, the selected moss species, able to actively capture NPs, appear as a powerful tool capable to purify water from nanostructured materials, and then, to reduce the toxicity associated to the ingestion of contaminated drinking water.

Impacts of foodborne inorganic nanoparticles on the gut microbiota-immune axis: potential consequences for host health.

BACKGROUND: In food toxicology, there is growing interest in studying the impacts of foodborne nanoparticles (NPs, originating from food additives, food supplements or food packaging) on the intestinal microbiome due to the important and complex physiological roles of these microbial communities in host health. Biocidal activities, as described over recent years for most inorganic and metal NPs, could favour chronic changes in the composition and/or metabolic activities of commensal bacteria (namely, intestinal dysbiosis) with consequences on immune functions. Reciprocally, direct interactions of NPs with the immune system (e.g., inflammatory responses, adjuvant or immunosuppressive properties) may in turn have effects on the gut microbiota. Many chronic diseases in humans are associated with alterations along the microbiota-immune system axis, such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), metabolic disorders (e.g., obesity) or colorectal cancer (CRC). This raises the question of whether chronic dietary exposure to inorganic NPs may be viewed as a risk factor facilitating disease onset and/or progression. Deciphering the variety of effects along the microbiota-immune axis may aid the understanding of how daily exposure to inorganic NPs through various foodstuffs may potentially disturb the intricate dialogue between gut commensals and immunity, hence increasing the vulnerability of the host. In animal studies, dose levels and durations of oral treatment are key factors for mimicking exposure conditions to which humans are or may be exposed through the diet on a daily basis, and are needed for hazard identification and risk assessment of foodborne NPs. This review summarizes relevant studies to support the development of predictive toxicological models that account for the gut microbiota-immune axis. CONCLUSIONS: The literature indicates that, in addition to evoking immune dysfunctions in the gut, inorganic NPs exhibit a moderate to extensive impact on intestinal microbiota composition and activity, highlighting a recurrent signature that favours colonization of the intestine by pathobionts at the expense of beneficial bacterial strains, as observed in IBD, CRC and obesity. Considering the long-term exposure via food, the effects of NPs on the gut microbiome should be considered in human health risk assessment, especially when a nanomaterial exhibits antimicrobial properties.

Physicochemical characteristics of oil-based cuttings from pretreatment in shale gas well sites.

Understanding the physicochemical characteristics of oil-based cuttings (OBCs) is an important foundation for subsequent treatment and management. The macro- and microscopic properties of white oil-based cuttings (WOBCs) and diesel-based cuttings (DBCs) after the different pretreatment steps have been assessed using scanning electron microscopy. The organic and inorganic compositions of OBCs have been analyzed using X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Inorganic matter (SiO2, BaSO4, and CaCO3), alkanes, aromatic compounds, and water were the main components of OBCs. The organic content (26.14%) and alkane content of the WOBCs were higher than that of the DBCs, whereas for the inorganic content (70.87%), the reverse was true. The macro- and micromorphologies of OBCs were quite different because their oil and water contents were different. The oil contents of OBCs decreased in the order A1 (14.64%) > A3 (12.67%) > A2 (11.06%) and B1 (9.19%) > B3 (8.94%) > B2 (4.66%); the water contents decreased in the order A1 (2.99%) > A3 (2.19%) > A2 (1.09%) and B1 (2.30%) > B3 (1.87%) > B2 (1.09%). Moreover, a skid-mounted treatment technology for OBCs was proposed. The results can be a scientific guidance for the treatment and management of OBCs.

Recent developments in the use of organic-inorganic nanohybrids for drug delivery.

Organic-inorganic nanohybrid (OINH) structures providing a versatile platform for drug delivery with improved characteristics are an area which has gained recent attention. Much effort has been taken to develop these structures to provide a viable treatment options for much alarming diseases such as cancer, bone destruction, neurological disorders, and so on. This review focuses on current work carried out in producing different types of hybrid drug carriers identifying their properties, fabrication techniques, and areas where they have been applied. A brief introduction on understating the requirement for blending organic-inorganic components into a nanohybrid drug carrier is followed with an elaboration given about the different types of OINHs developed currently highlighting their properties and applications. Then, different fabrication techniques are discussed given attention to surface functionalization, one-pot synthesis, wrapping, and electrospinning methods. Finally, it is concluded by briefing the challenges that are remaining to be addressed to obtain multipurpose nanohybrid drug carriers with wider applicability. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

The vacuolization of macrophages induced by large amounts of inorganic nanoparticle uptake to enhance the immune response.

Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs), particularly iron oxide (IO) and gold (Au) NPs, are widely used in a variety of biomedical applications, such as diagnosis and cancer therapy. As an important component of host defense in organisms, macrophages play a crucial role in responding to foreign substances, such as nanoparticles. Thus, it is of utmost importance to understand the nanotoxicity effects on the immune system by investigating the influences of such nanoparticles. In this study, we found that macrophages can take up large amounts of amphiphilic polymer (PMA)-modified Au and IO NPs, which will induce macrophage cell vacuolization and enhance macrophage polarization. This mechanism is an essential part of the immune response in vivo. In addition, we report that smaller-sized nanoparticles (ca. 4 nm) show more significant effects on the macrophage polarization and caused lysosomal damage compared to larger nanoparticles (ca. 14 nm). Moreover, the amount of NP uptake in macrophages decreases upon trapping the PMA with PEG, resulting in reduced vacuolization and a reduced immune response. We hypothesize that vacuoles are formed in large amounts during NP uptake by macrophages, which enhances the immune response and induces macrophages toward M1 polarization. These findings are potentially useful for disease treatment and understanding the immune response when NPs are used in vitro and in vivo.

Rapid Biofilm Elimination on Bone Implants Using Near-Infrared-Activated Inorganic Semiconductor Heterostructures.

Bacterial infections often cause orthopedic surgery failures. It is hard for the immune system and antibiotics to clear bacteria adhered to implants after they form a mature biofilm, and a secondary surgery is required to remove the infected implants. To avoid this, a hybrid coating of Bi2 S3 @Ag3 PO4 /Ti is prepared to eliminate biofilm using near-infrared (NIR) light. Bi2 S3 nanorod (NR) arrays are prepared on titanium (Ti) implants through hydrothermal methods, and Ag3 PO4 nanoparticles (NPs) are loaded on Bi2 S3 NR arrays using a stepwise electrostatic adsorption strategy. The introduction of Ag3 PO4 NPs enhances the photocatalysis performances of Bi2 S3 , and the hybrid coating also exhibits good photothermal effects. After 808 nm light irradiation for 15 min, it shows superior bactericidal efficiency of 99.45% against Staphylococcus aureus, 99.74% against Escherichia coli in vitro, and 94.54% against S. aureus biofilm in vivo. Bi2 S3 @Ag3 PO4 /Ti also shows good cell viability compared to pure Ti. This NIR-activated-inorganic hybrid semiconductor heterojunction coating is biocompatible and could be employed to eliminate biofilm effectively, which makes it a very promising strategy for the surface modification of bone implant materials.

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa, variety Salanova) production in decoupled aquaponic systems: Same yield and similar quality as in conventional hydroponic systems but drastically reduced greenhouse gas emissions by saving inorganic fertilizer.

Decoupled aquaponic systems have the potential to become one of the most effective sustainable production systems for the combined production of animal protein and plant crops. Here, recirculating aquaculture systems for fish production are combined with hydroponics for soilless plant production thereby recycling dissolved nutrients derived from metabolism of the fish. The aim of the present study was to characterize hydroponic lettuce production using conventional nutrient solution in comparison with decoupled aquaponics using the nutrient rich fish water as basis for the nutrient solution being supplemented by missing nutrients. In addition, one aquaponic treatment became disinfected in order to assess any occurring advantage of the aquaponics derived fish water. For evaluation the temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, and the mineral composition of the nutrient solution, as well as colony forming units in the fish water were monitored. Additionally, plant growth (fresh and dry weight, number and area of leaves) and quality parameters of lettuce leaves (nitrate, mineral content, phenolic compounds) were examined. Carbon sources and microorganisms derived from fish water seem to have neither beneficial nor detrimental effects on plant growth in this study. Except for some differences in the mineral content of the lettuce leaves, all other quality parameters were not significantly different. The use of aquaponic fish water saved 62.8% mineral fertilizer and fully substituted the required water for the nutrient solution in comparison to the control. Additionally, the reduced fertilizer demand using decoupled aquaponics can contribute to reduce greenhouse gas emissions of an annual lettuce production site per ha by 72% due to saving the energy for fertilizer production. This study clearly demonstrates the huge potential of the innovative approach of decoupled aquaponics to foster the transformation of our conventional agriculture towards sustainable production systems saving resources and minimizing emissions.

Advances in Therapeutic Implications of Inorganic Drug Delivery Nano-Platforms for Cancer.

Numerous nanoparticles drug delivery systems for therapeutic implications in cancer treatment are in preclinical development as conventional chemotherapy has several drawbacks. A chemotherapeutic approach requires high doses of chemotherapeutic agents with low bioavailability, non-specific targeting, and above all, development of multiple drug resistance. In recent years, inorganic nano-drug delivery platforms (NDDPs; with a metal core) have emerged as potential chemotherapeutic systems in oncology. One of the major goals of developing inorganic NDDPs is to effectively address the targeted anti-cancer drug(s) delivery related problems by carrying the therapeutic agents to desired tumors sites. In this current review, we delve into summarizing the recent developments in targeted release of anti-cancer drugs loaded in inorganic NDDPs such as mesoporous silica nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, layered double hydroxides, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and calcium phosphate nanoparticles together with highlighting their therapeutic performance at tumor sites.

Inorganic Nanoshell-Stabilized Liquid Metal for Targeted Photonanomedicine in NIR-II Biowindow.

Gallium and gallium-based alloys, typical types of liquid metals with unique physiochemical properties, are emerging as a next generation of functional materials in versatile biomedical applications. However, the exploration of their biomedical performance is currently insufficient, and their intrinsic low oxidative resistance is a key factor blocking their further clinical translation. Herein, we report on the surface engineering of liquid metal-based nanoplatforms by an inorganic silica nanoshell based on a novel but facile sonochemical synthesis for highly efficient, targeted, and near-infrared (NIR)-triggered photothermal tumor hyperthermia in the NIR-II biowindow. The inorganic silica-shell engineering of liquid metal significantly enhances the photothermal performance of the liquid metal core as reflected by enhanced NIR absorption, improved photothermal stability by oxidation protection, and abundant surface chemistry for surface-targeted engineering to achieve enhanced tumor accumulation. Systematic in vitro cell-level evaluation and in vivo tumor xenograft assessment demonstrate that (Arg-Gly-Asp) RGD-targeted and silica-coated nanoscale liquid metal substantially induces phototriggered cancer-cell death and photothermal tumor eradication, accompanied by high in vivo biocompatibility and easy excretion out of the body. This work provides the first paradigm for surface-inorganic engineering of liquid metal-based nanoplatforms for achieving multiple desirable therapeutic performances, especially for combating cancer.

Differences in biochemical properties of two 5'-nucleotidases from deep- and shallow-sea Shewanella species under various harsh conditions.

Deep-sea Shewanella violacea 5'-nucleotidase (SVNTase) activity exhibited higher NaCl tolerance than that of a shallow-sea Shewanella amazonensis homologue (SANTase), the sequence identity between them being 70.4%. Here, SVNTase exhibited higher activity than SANTase with various inorganic salts, similar to the difference in their NaCl tolerance. In contrast, SVNTase activity decreased with various organic solvents, while SANTase activity was retained with the same concentrations of the solvents. Therefore, SVNTase is more robust than SANTase with inorganic salts, but more vulnerable with organic solvents. As to protein stability, SANTase was more stable against organic solvents and heat than SVNTase, which correlated with the differences in their enzymatic activities. We also found that SANTase retained higher activity for three weeks than SVNTase did in the presence of glycerol. These findings will facilitate further application of these enzymes as appropriate biological catalysts under various harsh conditions. Abbreviations: NTase: 5'-nucleotidase; SANTase: Shewanella amazonensis 5'-nucleotidase; SVNTase: Shewanella violacea 5'-nucleotidase; CD: circular dichroism.

Catalysis Concepts in Medicinal Inorganic Chemistry.

Catalysis has strongly emerged in the field of medicinal inorganic chemistry as a suitable tool to deliver new drug candidates and to overcome drawbacks associated to metallodrugs. In this Concept article, we discuss representative examples of how catalysis has been applied in combination with metal complexes to deliver new therapy approaches. In particular, we explain key achievements in the design of catalytic metallodrugs that damage biomolecular targets and in the development of metal catalysis schemes for the activation of exogenous organic prodrugs. Moreover, we discuss our recent discoveries on the flavin-mediated bioorthogonal catalytic activation of metal-based prodrugs; a new catalysis strategy in which metal complexes are unconventionally employed as substrates rather than catalysts.

Hydrogen-Bonded Organic⁻Inorganic Hybrid Based on Hexachloroplatinate and Nitrogen Heterocyclic Cations: Their Synthesis, Characterization, Crystal Structures, and Antitumor Activities In Vitro.

Three new crystal structures containing [PtCl6]2−, pyridinium and benzimidazole groups have been prepared: [PtCl6]·(H-bzm)2·2(H2O) (1), [PtCl6]·(H-bipy)2·2(H2O) (2), [PtCl6]·(H-dimethyl-bipy)2·2(H2O) (3) [H-bzm: benzimidazole cation, H-bipy: 2,2'-bipyridine cation, H-dimethyl-bipy: 4,4'-bimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine cation]. All compounds have been fully characterized by elemental analyses, single-crystal X-ray analyses, IR spectra, TG analyses, and fluorescence studies. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis suggests that the primary synthon contains ⁺N⁻H···Cl−, including ionic bonding and hydrogen bonding interactions. The dimensions are enhanced further by secondary O⁻H ∙∙Cl and N⁻H ∙∙O hydrogen bonding interactions between donor and acceptor atoms located at the periphery of these synthons. Moreover, coulombic attractions between the ions play an important role in reinforcing the structures of these complexes. In addition, antitumor activity against human lung adenocarcinoma cell line (A549) and human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell line (CNE-2) was performed. These complexes all showed inhibition to the two cell lines, while complex 3 exhibited higher efficiency than complexes 1⁻2.

Effect of inorganic and organic bioactive signals decoration on the biological performance of chitosan scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

The present work is focused on the design of a bioactive chitosan-based scaffold functionalized with organic and inorganic signals to provide the biochemical cues for promoting stem cell osteogenic commitment. The first approach is based on the use of a sequence of 20 amino acids corresponding to a 68-87 sequence in knuckle epitope of BMP-2 that was coupled covalently to the carboxyl group of chitosan scaffold. Meanwhile, the second approach is based on the biomimetic treatment, which allows the formation of hydroxyapatite nuclei on the scaffold surface. Both scaffolds bioactivated with organic and inorganic signals induce higher expression of an early marker of osteogenic differentiation (ALP) than the neat scaffolds after 3 days of cell culture. However, scaffolds decorated with BMP-mimicking peptide show higher values of ALP than the biomineralized one. Nevertheless, the biomineralized scaffolds showed better cellular behaviour than neat scaffolds, demonstrating the good effect of hydroxyapatite deposits on hMSC osteogenic differentiation. At long incubation time no significant difference among the biomineralized and BMP-activated scaffolds was observed. Furthermore, the highest level of Osteocalcin expression (OCN) was observed for scaffold with BMP2 mimic-peptide at day 21. The overall results showed that the presence of bioactive signals on the scaffold surface allows an osteoinductive effect on hMSC in a basal medium, making the modified chitosan scaffolds a promising candidate for bone tissue regeneration.

A highly ordered chiral inorganic mesoporous material used as stationary phase for high-resolution gas chromatographic separations.

A highly ordered chiral mesoporous silica-coated capillary column has been used for high-resolution gas chromatographic separations. The column has excellent selectivity, not only for the separation of isomers, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, linear alkanes, long chain alkanes, Grob's test mixture and aromatic hydrocarbons, but also for the resolution of different classes of chiral compounds. Additionally, the column exhibits high column efficiency, excellent temperature resistance, and analysis times are short. This is the first report of a highly ordered chiral inorganic mesoporous silica used in separation science.

Method to characterize inorganic particulates in lung tissue biopsies using field emission scanning electron microscopy.

Humans accumulate large numbers of inorganic particles in their lungs over a lifetime. Whether this causes or contributes to debilitating disease over a normal lifespan depends on the type and concentration of the particles. We developed and tested a protocol for in situ characterization of the types and distribution of inorganic particles in biopsied lung tissue from three human groups using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Many distinct particle types were recognized among the 13 000 particles analyzed. Silica, feldspars, clays, titanium dioxides, iron oxides and phosphates were the most common constituents in all samples. Particles were classified into three general groups: endogenous, which form naturally in the body; exogenic particles, natural earth materials; and anthropogenic particles, attributed to industrial sources. These in situ results were compared with those using conventional sodium hypochlorite tissue digestion and particle filtration. With the exception of clays and phosphates, the relative abundances of most common particle types were similar in both approaches. Nonetheless, the digestion/filtration method was determined to alter the texture and relative abundances of some particle types. SEM/EDS analysis of digestion filters could be automated in contrast to the more time intensive in situ analyses.