Yeast CUP1 protects HeLa cells against copper-induced stress

As an essential trace element, copper can be toxic in mammalian cells when present in excess. Metallothioneins (MTs) are small, cysteine-rich proteins that avidly bind copper and thus play an important role in detoxification. Yeast CUP1 is a member of the MT gene family. The aim of this study was to determine whether yeast CUP1 could bind copper effectively and protect cells against copper stress. In this study, CUP1 expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR, and copper content was detected by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated using the 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein-diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay. Cellular viability was detected using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, and the cell cycle distribution of CUP1 was analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. The data indicated that overexpression of yeast CUP1 in HeLa cells played a protective role against copper-induced stress, leading to increased cellular viability (P<0.05) and decreased ROS production (P<0.05). It was also observed that overexpression of yeast CUP1 reduced the percentage of G1 cells and increased the percentage of S cells, which suggested that it contributed to cell viability. We found that overexpression of yeast CUP1 protected HeLa cells against copper stress. These results offer useful data to elucidate the mechanism of the MT gene on copper metabolism in mammalian cells.

Progressive effects of N-myc deficiency on proliferation, neurogenesis, and morphogenesis in the olfactory epithelium.

N-myc belongs to the myc proto-oncogene family, which is involved in numerous cellular processes such as proliferation, growth, apoptosis, and differentiation. Conditional deletion of N-myc in the mouse nervous system disrupted brain development, indicating that N-myc plays an essential role during neural development. How the development of the olfactory epithelium and neurogenesis within are affected by the loss of N-myc has, however, not been determined. To address these issues, we examined an N-myc(Foxg1Cre) conditional mouse line, in which N-myc is depleted in the olfactory epithelium. First changes in N-myc mutants were detected at E11.5, with reduced proliferation and neurogenesis in a slightly smaller olfactory epithelium. The phenotype was more pronounced at E13.5, with a complete lack of Hes5-positive progenitor cells, decreased proliferation, and neurogenesis. In addition, stereological analyses revealed reduced cell size of post-mitotic neurons in the olfactory epithelium, which contributed to a smaller olfactory pit. Furthermore, we observed diminished proliferation and neurogenesis also in the vomeronasal organ, which likewise was reduced in size. In addition, the generation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons was severely reduced in N-myc mutants. Thus, diminished neurogenesis and proliferation in combination with smaller neurons might explain the morphological defects in the N-myc depleted olfactory structures. Moreover, our results suggest an important role for N-myc in regulating ongoing neurogenesis, in part by maintaining the Hes5-positive progenitor pool. In summary, our results provide evidence that N-myc deficiency in the olfactory epithelium progressively diminishes proliferation and neurogenesis with negative consequences at structural and cellular levels.

Goofy coordinates the acuity of olfactory signaling.

The basic scheme of odor perception and signaling from olfactory cilia to the brain is well understood. However, factors that affect olfactory acuity of an animal, the threshold sensitivity to odorants, are less well studied. Using signal sequence trap screening of a mouse olfactory epithelium cDNA library, we identified a novel molecule, Goofy, that is essential for olfactory acuity in mice. Goofy encodes an integral membrane protein with specific expression in the olfactory and vomeronasal sensory neurons and predominant localization to the Golgi compartment. Goofy-deficient mice display aberrant olfactory phenotypes, including the impaired trafficking of adenylyl cyclase III, stunted olfactory cilia, and a higher threshold for physiological and behavioral responses to odorants. In addition, the expression of dominant-negative form of cAMP-dependent protein kinase results in shortening of olfactory cilia, implying a possible mechanistic link between cAMP and ciliogenesis in the olfactory sensory neurons. These results demonstrate that Goofy plays an important role in establishing the acuity of olfactory sensory signaling.

Smell and taste disorders.

Olfaction and taste promote satisfaction and protection in daily life. The astute facial plastic surgeon recognizes the importance of a baseline smell test to document the patients' olfactory status before surgery. After surgery, the surgeon must be alert to the possible mechanisms of hyposmia and anosmia and the pertinent treatment strategies. The surgeon must also understand the importance of counseling the patient and family regarding the cause of the dysfunction and the proper treatments. This article updates the facial plastic surgeon on the importance of smell and taste and associated disorders with a current review of the literature.

Comparative morphometry of the olfactory bulb, tract and stria in the human, dog and goat / Morfometría comparada del bulbo, tracto y estría olfatoria en el humano, perro y cabra

Morphometric parameters of olfactory brain components show species-dependent variations. However, the association of these parameters with olfactory function vis-à-vis ecological and evolutionary behaviors is poorly understood. In this study, a morphometric analysis of the olfactory bulb, tract and stria was carried out in three ecologically diverse animals comprising humans (primate), dogs (carnivore) and goats (herbivore) to elucidate differences in morphometry in relation to olfactory function. Using formalin-fixed brains, volumes and linear measurements of the olfactory structures were determined and correlated with those of cerebrum and the whole brain. The volume of the olfactory bulb was greatest in dogs, followed by goats and humans and constituted 0.31 percent, 0.18 percent and 0.01 percent, respectively, of the brain volume. Similarly, the ratio of volume of the bulb, tract and stria to that of brain was 1.95 percent in the dog, 0.77 percent in the goat and 0.03 percent in the human. The width of the bulb was greatest (p< 0.05) in dogs (10.80 +/- 1.64mm) compared to goats (8.25 +/- 0.96mm) and humans (5.50 +/- 0.71mm), and accounted for a hemisphere breadth of 42.91 percent, 29.73 percent and 8.94 percent respectively. Interestingly though, the total length of the olfactory bulb, tract and striae increased in the order of goat (34.5 +/- 1.30mm), human (36.25 +/- 1.70mm) and dog (48.20 +/- 1.92mm), and constituted 21.47 percent, 51.87 percent and 72.30 percent, respectively, of the hemisphere length. These results suggest that the morphometric adaptations of the olfactory components to olfactory function decline from the dog, to goat, to human, and this may be indicative of the varied olfactory functional needs in regard to the ecological diversity of these species.

Los parámetros morfométricos de los componentes del cerebro olfativo presentan variaciones que dependen de las especies. Sin embargo, la asociación de estos parámetros con la función olfativa vis-à-vis los comportamientos ecológicos y evolutivos es poco conocida. En este estudio se llevó a cabo un análisis morfométrico del bulbo, tracto y estría olfatoria en tres animales de diversidad ecológica que abarcan los seres humanos (primates), perros (carnívoros) y cabras (herbívoros) para dilucidar las diferencias en la morfometría en relación con la función olfatoria. El uso de cerebros fijados en formalina, los volúmenes y las medidas lineales de las estructuras olfativas se determinaron y se correlacionaron con el cerebro. El volumen del bulbo olfatorio fue mayor en los perros, seguidos por cabras y seres humanos y constituyeron un 0,31 por ciento, 0,18 por ciento y 0,01 por ciento, respectivamente, del volumen del cerebro. Del mismo modo, la relación entre el volumen del bulbo, vías y estrías al del cerebro fue de 1,95 por ciento en el perro, un 0,77 por ciento en la cabra y 0,03 por ciento en el ser humano. El ancho del bulbo fue mayor (p <0,05) en los perros (10,80 +/- 1.64mm) en comparación con cabras (8,25 +/- 0.96mm) y humanos (5,50 +/- 0.71mm), y representó una total hemisférico de 42,91 por ciento, 29,73 por ciento y 8,94 por ciento respectivamente. Sin embargo, curiosamente la longitud total del bulbo olfatorio, del tracto y estrías aumentaron en la cabra (34,5 +/- 1,30 mm), en humanos (36,25 +/- 1.70mm) y en el perro (48,20 +/- 1,92mm), y constituyeron 21,47 por ciento, 51,87 por ciento y 72,30 por ciento, respectivamente, del largo del hemisferio. Estos resultados sugieren que las adaptaciones morfométricas de los componentes olfativos de la función olfativa se van reduciendo de perro a cabra y al hombre y esto puede ser indicativo de las variadas necesidades funcionales olfativas en lo que respecta a la diversidad ecológica de estas especies.

The mouse olfactory peduncle.

The olfactory peduncle, the region connecting the olfactory bulb with the basal forebrain, contains several neural areas that have received relatively little attention. The present work includes studies that provide an overview of the region in the mouse. An analysis of cell soma size in pars principalis (pP) of the anterior olfactory nucleus (AON) revealed considerable differences in tissue organization between mice and rats. An unbiased stereological study of neuron number in the cell-dense regions of pars externa (pE) and pP of the AON of 3-, 12-, and 24-month-old mice indicated that pE has about 16,500 cells in 0.043 mm(3) and pP about 58,300 cells in 0.307 mm(3) . Quantitative Golgi studies of pyramidal neurons in pP suggested that mouse neurons are similar to although smaller than those of the rat. An immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that all peduncular regions (pE, pP, the dorsal peduncular cortex, ventral tenia tecta, and anterior olfactory tubercle and piriform cortex) have cells that express either calbindin, calretinin, parvalbumin, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, neuropeptide Y, or cholecystokinin (antigens commonly co-expressed by subspecies of γ-aminobutyric acid [GABA]ergic neurons), although the relative numbers of each cell type differ between zones. Finally, an electron microscopic comparison of the organization of myelinated fibers in lateral olfactory tract in the anterior and posterior peduncle indicated that the region is less orderly in mice than in rats. The results provide a caveat for investigators who generalize data between species, as both similarities and differences between the laboratory mouse and rat were observed.

Olfactory projections in the white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus: an experimental study.

Telencephalic evolution in ray-finned fishes shows increasing complexity from polypteriform fishes through sturgeons to teleosts. Telencephalic organization in sturgeons is thus critical to our understanding of ray-finned fish evolution, but it is poorly understood, particularly as regards the roof or pallium. Two major hypotheses exist regarding the medial part of area dorsalis (Dm): that Dm is extended; and that Dm is restricted. The extent and topography of secondary olfactory projections to the pallium are critical in evaluating these hypotheses, but there is little agreement regarding these projections. Olfactory projections in the white sturgeon were therefore examined by using the carbocyanine probe DiI, biocytin, and biotinylated dextrin amine (BDA). Both DiI and BDA revealed primary olfactory projections to the olfactory bulb and primary extrabulbar projections widely in the telencephalon and to more restricted regions of the diencephalon. Myelinated secondary olfactory fibers caused DiI to be less effective in labeling secondary olfactory projections, which terminate in all subpallial nuclei and in the pallium: sparsely in the medial pallial division (Dm); heavily in the posterior pallial division (Dp); and more lightly in the lateral pallial division (Dl). In the diencephalon, substantial secondary olfactory projections were seen to the habenular nuclei, the rostral pole of the inferior lobe, and several nuclei of the posterior tubercle. All secondary olfactory projections were bilateral but heavier ipsilaterally. Bulbopetal neurons were located in both pallial and subpallial centers and were more numerous ipsilaterally. These results corroborate an earlier experimental study on the shovelnose sturgeon and indicate a restricted Dm in sturgeons.

Differential co-localization with choline acetyltransferase in nervus terminalis suggests functional differences for GnRH isoforms in bonnethead sharks (Sphyrna tiburo).

The nervus terminalis (NT) is a vertebrate cranial nerve whose function in adults is unknown. In bonnethead sharks, the nerve is anatomically independent of the olfactory system, with two major cell populations within one or more ganglia along its exposed length. Most cells are immunoreactive for either gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) or RF-amide-like peptides. To define further the cell populations and connectivity, we used double-label immunocytochemistry with antisera to different isoforms of GnRH and to choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). The labeling patterns of two GnRH antisera revealed different populations of GnRH-immunoreactive (ir) cell profiles in the NT ganglion. One antiserum labeled a large group of cells and fibers, which likely contain mammalian GnRH (GnRH-I) as described in previous studies and which were ChAT immunoreactive. The other antiserum labeled large club-like structures, which were anuclear, and a sparse number of fibers, but with no clear labeling of cell bodies in the ganglion. These club structures were choline acetyltrasferase (ChAT)-negative, and preabsorption control tests suggest they may contain chicken-GnRH-II (GnRH-II) or dogfish GnRH. The second major NT ganglion cell-type was immunoreactive for RF-amides, which regulate GnRH release in other vertebrates, and may provide an intraganglionic influence on GnRH release. The immunocytochemical and anatomical differences between the two GnRH-immunoreactive profile types indicate possible functional differences for these isoforms in the NT. The club-like structures may be sites of GnRH release into the general circulation since these structures were observed near blood vessels and resembled structures seen in the median eminence of rats.

From nose to brain: development of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone-1 neurones.

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone-1 (GnRH-1) is essential for mammalian reproduction, controlling release of gonadotrophins from the anterior pituitary. GnRH-1 neurones migrate from the nasal placode into the forebrain during development. Although first located within the nasal placode, the embryonic origin/lineage of GnRH-1 neurones is still unclear. The migration of GnRH-1 cells is the best characterised example of neurophilic/axophilic migration, with the cells using a subset of olfactory-derived vomeronasal axons as their pathway and numerous molecules to guide their movement into the forebrain. Exciting work in this area is beginning to identify intersecting pathways that orchestrate the movement of these critical neuroendocrine cells into the central nervous system, both spatially and temporally, through a diverse and changing terrain. Once within the forebrain, little is known about how the axons target the median eminence and ultimately secrete GnRH-1 in a pulsatile fashion.

Anisometric brain dimorphism revisited: Implementation of a volumetric 3D standard brain in Manduca sexta.

Lepidopterans like the giant sphinx moth Manduca sexta are known for their conspicuous sexual dimorphism in the olfactory system, which is especially pronounced in the antennae and in the antennal lobe, the primary integration center of odor information. Even minute scents of female pheromone are detected by male moths, facilitated by a huge array of pheromone receptors on their antennae. The associated neuropilar areas in the antennal lobe, the glomeruli, are enlarged in males and organized in the form of the so-called macroglomerular complex (MGC). In this study we searched for anatomical sexual dimorphism more downstream in the olfactory pathway and in other neuropil areas in the central brain. Based on freshly eclosed animals, we created a volumetric female and male standard brain and compared 30 separate neuropilar regions. Additionally, we labeled 10 female glomeruli that were homologous to previously quantitatively described male glomeruli including the MGC. In summary, the neuropil volumes reveal an isometric sexual dimorphism in M. sexta brains. This proportional size difference between male and female brain neuropils masks an anisometric or disproportional dimorphism, which is restricted to the sex-related glomeruli of the antennal lobes and neither mirrored in other normal glomeruli nor in higher brain centers like the calyces of the mushroom bodies. Both the female and male 3D standard brain are also used for interspecies comparisons, and may serve as future volumetric reference in pharmacological and behavioral experiments especially regarding development and adult plasticity. J. Comp. Neurol. 517:210-225, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The main olfactory system and social learning in mammals.

There is increasing evidence for specialised processing of social cues in the brain. This review considers how the main olfactory system of mammals is designed to process social odours and the effects of learning in a social context. It focuses mainly on extensive research carried out on offspring, mate or conspecific learning carried out in sheep and rodents. Detailing the roles of the olfactory bulb and its projections, classical neurotransmitters, nitric oxide, oestrogen and neuropeptides such as oxytocin and vasopressin in mediating plasticity changes in the olfactory system arising from these different social learning contexts. The relative simplicity of the organisation of the olfactory system, the speed and robustness of these forms of social learning together with the similarity in brain regions and neurochemical contributions across the different learning paradigms make them important and useful models for investigating general principles of learning and memory in the brain.

Morphometric and ultrastructural comparison of the olfactory system in elasmobranchs: the significance of structure-function relationships based on phylogeny and ecology.

This study investigated the relationship between olfactory morphology, habitat occupancy, and lifestyle in 21 elasmobranch species in a phylogenetic context. Four measures of olfactory capability, that is, the number of olfactory lamellae, the surface area of the olfactory epithelium, the mass of the olfactory bulb, and the mass of the olfactory rosette were compared between individual species and groups, comprised of species with similar habitat and/or lifestyle. Statistical analyses using generalized least squares phylogenetic regression revealed that bentho-pelagic sharks and rays possess significantly more olfactory lamellae and larger sensory epithelial surface areas than benthic species. There was no significant correlation between either olfactory bulb or rosette mass and habitat type. There was also no significant difference between the number of lamellae or the size of the sensory surface area in groups comprised of species with similar diets, that is, groups preying predominantly on crustaceans, cephalopods, echinoderms, polychaetes, molluscs, or teleosts. However, some groups had significantly larger olfactory bulb or rosette masses than others. There was little evidence to support a correlation between phylogeny and morphology, indicating that differences in olfactory capabilities are the result of functional rather than phylogenetic adaptations. All olfactory epithelia exhibited microvilli and cilia, with microvilli in both nonsensory and sensory areas, and cilia only in sensory areas. Cilia over the sensory epithelia originated from supporting cells. In contrast to teleosts, which possess ciliated and microvillous olfactory receptor types, no ciliated olfactory receptor cells were observed. This is the first comprehensive study comparing olfactory morphology to several aspects of elasmobranch ecology in a phylogenetic context.

Effects of sexual experience on conspecific odor preference and male odor-induced activation of the vomeronasal projection pathway and the nucleus accumbens in female rats.

In the present study in estrogen-progesterone primed ovariectomized female rats, we examined the expression of a preference for male odors and male odor-induced Fos immunoreactivity throughout the vomeronasal projection pathway and the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), using both sexually experienced and sexually naive subjects. Female rats significantly preferred airborne odors and soiled bedding from sexually active males over those from estrous females, irrespective of the presence or absence of prior sexual experience. On the other hand, the brain regions in which exposure to male-soiled bedding significantly increased Fos expression were different between sexually experienced and sexually naive subjects. Significant increment of Fos expression in the posterior-dorsal medial amygdala (MePD) and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST) in forebrain, as well as the accessory olfactory bulb, was observed in both groups of subjects. Fos expression in the anterior-dorsal medial amygdala (MeAD), the medial preoptic area (mPOA) and the NAcc core, however, was significantly increased only in the sexually experienced subjects. These results suggested that male odor-induced activations of the MePD and/or the BNST, but not of the MeAD, the mPOA and the NAcc core, are required for the expression of a male-directed odor preference in female rats.

Neuronal activation by stimuli that predict sexual reward in female rats.

Conditioned stimuli (CSs) associated with paced copulation induce a conditioned partner preference for males bearing the CS. Here we examined the activation of Fos immunoreactivity (Fos-IR) following exposure to a CS previously paired with either paced or nonpaced copulation. Ovariectomized, hormone-primed rats received 10 sequential conditioning trials at 4-day intervals. In experiment 1, females in the odor-paired group learned to associate an almond odor on a male with paced copulation and an unscented male with nonpaced copulation. In the odor-unpaired group, females received the opposite association. In experiment 2, females associated two different strains of male, Long-Evans or Wistar, with paced or nonpaced copulation, respectively. A preference test indicated that females in both experiments developed a conditioned preference for the pacing-related males, as indicated by significantly more solicitations toward the male and a preference to copulate with the pacing-related male. Subsequently, females were exposed to the CS (odor or strain) alone for 1 h prior to kill and preparation of their brains for immunocytochemistry. In both experiments, the CS associated with paced copulation produced significantly more Fos-IR in the piriform cortex, medial preoptic area, and ventral tegmental area, relative to the same odor or strain cues associated with nonpaced copulation. These findings provide evidence that the state associated with paced copulation can be conditioned to environmental stimuli such as neutral odors or strain cues, which earn an incentive value via classical conditioning. The significance of the brain areas activated is discussed with regard to their role in sexual and other motivated behaviors.

Termination profiles of insect chemosensory afferents in the antennal lobe are dependent on their origin on the flagellum.

In cockroach antennae, sensory afferents from sensilla on the anterodorsal surface of the flagellum form the anterior antennal nerve, while afferents from the posteroventral surface form the posterior nerve. Anterograde staining was used to investigate afferent termination profiles in the glomeruli of the antennal lobe. The densities of terminal arborizations from the two nerves differed between glomeruli, with groupings of similar glomeruli evident. Individual glomeruli showed heterogeneous distribution of afferent terminals, with posterior nerve afferent terminals occurring near the nerve/glomeruli interface, and anterior nerve afferent terminals occurring on the opposite side. This study demonstrates, for the first time, a correlation between the distribution of primary afferent terminals in the individual glomeruli, and their origin on the surface of the flagellum.

Neural pathways involved in the endocrine response of anestrous ewes to the male or its odor.

During the non-breeding season, anestrous ewes do not experience ovarian cycles but exposure to a ram or its odor results in the activation of the luteinizing hormone secretion leading to ovulation. The aim of our work was to identify the neural pathways involved in this phenomenon. Using Fos immunocytochemistry, we examined the brain areas activated by the male or its fleece, in comparison with ewes exposed to the female fleece or the testing room (control group). In comparison with the control group, the male or its odor significantly increases Fos neuronal expression in the main and accessory olfactory bulbs, anterior olfactory nucleus, cortical and basal amygdala, dentate gyrus, ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, piriform and orbitofrontal cortices. The main olfactory bulb, the cortical amygdala and the dentate gyrus are specifically more activated by the male odor than the female odor. Using a procedure of double labeling for Fos and gonadotropin-releasing hormone, we also compared the number of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons activated in the four groups of females. The male or its odor significantly increases the number and the proportion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone cells expressing Fos-immunoreactivity in the preoptic area and the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, whereas no such induction of Fos-immunoreactivity was found in gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons of ewes exposed to the female odor or the testing room. These findings emphasize the role of the main olfactory system in the detection and the integration of the ram odor, and also suggest the participation of the accessory olfactory system. Numerous structures widely distributed seem involved in the processing of the male olfactory cue to reach the gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons.

Role of neuropeptide Y in the regulation of gonadotropin releasing hormone system in the forebrain of Clarias batrachus (Linn.): immunocytochemistry and high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometric analysis.

Although the importance of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the regulation of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and reproduction has been highlighted in recent years, the neuroanatomical substrate within which these substances might interact has not been fully elucidated. Present work was undertaken with a view to define the anatomical-physiological correlates underlying the role exercised by NPY in the regulation of GnRH in the forebrain of the teleost Clarias batrachus. Application of double immunocytochemistry revealed close associations as well as colocalizations of the two peptides in the olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), olfactory nerve fibers and their terminals in the glomeruli, ganglion cells of nervus terminalis, medial olfactory tract, fibers in the area ventralis telencephali/pars supracommissuralis and cells as well as fibers in the pituitary. NPY containing axons were found to terminate in the vicinity of GnRH cells in the pituitary with light as well as electron microscopy. Double immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated gold particles for NPY and GnRH colocalized on the membrane and in dense core of the secretory granules in the cells distributed in all components of the pituitary gland. To assess the physiological implication of these observations, NPY was injected via the intracranial route and the response of GnRH immunoreactive system was evaluated by relative quantitative morphometry as well as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Two hours following NPY (20 ng/g body weight) administration, a dramatic increase was observed in the GnRH immunoreactivity in the ORNs, in the fibers of the olfactory bulb (163%) and medial olfactory tract (351%). High performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometric analysis confirmed the immunocytochemical data. Significant rise in the salmon GnRH (sGnRH)-like peptide content was observed in the olfactory organ (194.23%), olfactory bulb (146.64%), telencephalon+preoptic area (214.10%) and the pituitary (136.72%) of the NPY-treated fish. However, GnRH in the hypothalamus was below detection limit in the control as well as NPY-treated fish. Present results suggest the involvement of NPY in the up-regulation of sGnRH containing system at different level of neuraxis extending from the olfactory epithelium to the pituitary in the forebrain of C. batrachus.

[Clinical anatomy study of olfaction correlative nerves].

OBJECTIVE: To find out the relation of the olfactory nerves, the optic nerve, and the nasal sinuses. Provide anatomic data for not to damnify olfactory nerves in the surgery. METHOD: To measure the olfactory nerves, the olfactory bulb, and olfactory tract on 16 adult cadaveric specimens, and observe the relation of the olfactory nerves, the optic nerve,and the nasal sinuses. RESULT: Length of the olfactory tract was (29.32 +/- 2.11) mm, width of the olfactory tract was (3.36 +/- 0.83) mm. The distance from the midpoint of the olfactory tract to the midline of the skull was (5.48 +/- 1.02) mm. The angle between olfactory tract and midline of the skull was (21.32 +/- 3.28) degrees. Length of the olfactory bulb was (10.43 +/- 2.35) mm, width of the olfactory bulb was (5.12 +/- 0.62) mm. 27/32 olfactory tracts were border upon with sphenoid sinus and ethmoid sinus, 3/32 olfactory tracts were border upon with ethmoid sinus, 2/32 olfactory tracts were border upon with frontal sinus. All olfactory tracts crossed the optic nerve at the internal meatus of optic nerve canal. The olfactory bulb and ethmoid bulb were on equal line. CONCLUSION: Almost all olfactory tracts were lied in the inboard of the orbital cavity, protect the roof of the nasal sinus to avoid damnify the olfactory nerves. It is easy to pull out the olfactory nerves when raising the cerebra in the operation of anterior cranial fossae.