Prioritization of pesticides in crops with a semi-quantitative risk ranking method for Taiwan postmarket monitoring program.

A risk-based prioritization of chemical hazards in monitoring programs allows regulatory agencies to focus on the most potentially concerned items involving human health risk. In this study, a risk-based matrix, with a scoring method using multiple factors for severity and probability of exposure, was employed to identify the pesticides presented in crops that may pose the greatest risk to human health. Both the probability of exposure and the severity were assessed for 91 pesticides detected in a Taiwanese postmarketing monitoring program. Probability of exposure was evaluated based on the probability of consumption and evidence of pesticide residues in crops. Severity was assessed based on the nature of the hazard (i.e., the description of toxic effects), and the acceptable daily intake (ADI) reported by available toxicological reports. This study showed that the nature of the hazard and probability of consumption had the strongest contribution to risk score. Dithiocarbamates, endosulfan, and carbofuran were identified as the pesticides with the highest concern for human health risks in Taiwan. These pesticides should be monitored more frequently than others in crops during the postmarketing monitoring program. However, some uncertainties shall be noted or improved when this methodology is applied for risk prioritization in the future.

Risk assessment of benzene in food samples of Iran's market.

The concentration of benzene in ninety-eight collected food and drink samples (carbonated beverage, fruit juice, pickle, lime juice, mayonnaise and salad dressing, 16 samples from each) from Iran local markets were investigated using gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Moreover, the correlation of benzene concentration with sodium benzoate and ascorbic acid concentrations was assessed. Benzene concentration in carbonated beverages, fruit juices, pickle, lime juices, mayonnaise and salad dressing were 3.57 ±â€¯1.70, 5.17 ±â€¯3.63, 4.37 ±â€¯2.24, 4.99 ±â€¯0.54, 1.38 ±â€¯0.87 and 1.47 ±â€¯0.83 µg/L, respectively, being in all cases below the acceptable limit (10 µg/L) proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a reference for drinking water. Benzene concentration exceeded the maximum tolerable limit in 12.5% of carbonated beverages and fruit juices (two samples from each). A significant correlation coefficient between the concentrations of benzene, sodium benzoate, and ascorbic acid in fruit juices, and levels of benzene, sodium benzoate in carbonated beverage samples was observed. To characterize the risk of exposure of urban and rural consumers of Iran (female in age group of 15-24 and male in age group of 25-64) to benzene in food and drink samples the Margin of Exposure (MoE) approach was applied revealing there is no severe concern regarding benzene intake through assessed food and beverages samples in Iran.

Putative Markers of Adulteration of Higher-Grade Olive Oil with Less Expensive Pomace Olive Oil Identified by Gas Chromatography Combined with Chemometrics.

This work has been performed to ascertain that extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) is free of adulteration. For this purpose, refined pomace olive oils (RPOOs) are commonly used for extra-virgin olive oil adulteration and repassed olive oils (ROOs) are used for lampante olive oil (LOO) fraudulent operation. Indeed, fatty acid ethyl esters could be used as a parameter for the detection of EVOO fraud with 2% RPOO. The addition of >10% RPOO to EVOO would be detected by the amount of erythrodiol, uvaol, waxes, and aliphatic alcohols. Moreover, the use of stigmasta-3,5-diene content proved to be effective in EVOO adulteration even at a low level (with 1% RPOO). For the detection of adulteration of LOO with >5% ROO, the sum of erythrodiol, uvaol, and the waxes and esters can be considered as good markers of purity. Using linear discriminant analysis can identify the most discriminant variable that allows a faster and cheaper evaluation of extra-virgin olive oil adulteration by measuring only these variables.

Regulatory Issues Associated with Preharvest Food Safety: European Union Perspective.

Free movement of safe and wholesome food is an essential aspect of any society. This article contains an updated description of the regulatory issues associated with preharvest food safety within the European Union. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Trichinella, antimicrobial resistance, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy are dealt with in detail. Moreover, Cysticercus bovis/Taenia saginata, Toxoplasma, Yersinia, verotoxigenic/shigatoxigenic Escherichia coli, Listeria, and foodborne viruses are briefly covered. The article describes how the focus in the European Union is changing to involve a supply chain view with a focus on cost-effectiveness. The precautionary principle-as well as the use of private standards as an instrument to ensure compliance-is dealt with. In addition, actions in the pipeline are presented and discussed.

Mycotoxins in a changing global environment--a review.

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly contaminate staple foods and feeds. They represent an unavoidable problem due to their presence in globally consumed cereals such as rice, maize and wheat. Most mycotoxins are immunosuppressive agents and some are carcinogens, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, and neurotoxins. Worldwide trends envision a stricter control of mycotoxins, however, the changing global environment may not be the ideal setting to control and reduce the exposure to these toxins. Although new technologies allow us to inspect the multi-mycotoxin presence in foods, new sources of exposure, gaps in knowledge of mycotoxins interactions, appearance of "emergent" mycotoxins and elucidation of consequent health effects can complicate their control even more. While humans are adapting to cope with environmental changes, such as food scarcity, decreased food quality, mycotoxin regulations, crop production and seasonality, and other climate related modifications, fungal species are also adapting and increased cases of mycotoxin adverse health effects are likely to occur in the future. To guarantee access to quality food for all, we need a way to balance global mycotoxin standards with the realistic feasibility of reaching them, considering limitations of producers and designing strategies to reduce mycotoxin exposure based on sound research.

Computer vision-based analysis of foods: a non-destructive colour measurement tool to monitor quality and safety.

Computer vision-based image analysis has been widely used in food industry to monitor food quality. It allows low-cost and non-contact measurements of colour to be performed. In this paper, two computer vision-based image analysis approaches are discussed to extract mean colour or featured colour information from the digital images of foods. These types of information may be of particular importance as colour indicates certain chemical changes or physical properties in foods. As exemplified here, the mean CIE a* value or browning ratio determined by means of computer vision-based image analysis algorithms can be correlated with acrylamide content of potato chips or cookies. Or, porosity index as an important physical property of breadcrumb can be calculated easily. In this respect, computer vision-based image analysis provides a useful tool for automatic inspection of food products in a manufacturing line, and it can be actively involved in the decision-making process where rapid quality/safety evaluation is needed.

Adenovirus and Norovirus Contaminants in Commercially Distributed Shellfish.

Shellfish complying with European Regulations based on quantification of fecal bacterial indicators (FIB) are introduced into markets; however, information on viruses, more stable than FIB, is not available in the literature. To assess the presence of noroviruses (NoVs) GI and GII and human adenoviruses (HAdV) in domestic and imported mussels and clams (n = 151) their presence was analyzed during winter seasons (2004-2008) in north-west Spanish markets through a routine surveillance system. All samples tested negative for NoV GI and 13 % were positive for NoV GII. The role of HAdV as viral indicator was evaluated in 20 negative and 10 positive NoV GII samples showing an estimated sensitivity and specificity of HAdV to predict the presence of NoV GII of 100 and 74 % (cut-off 0.5). The levels of HAdV and NoVs and the efficiency of decontamination in shellfish depuration plants (SDP) were evaluated analyzing pre- and post-depurated mussels collected in May-June 2010 from three different SDP. There were no statistically significant differences in the prevalence and quantification of HAdV between pre- and post-depurated shellfish and between seawater entering and leaving the depuration systems. Moreover, infectious HAdV were detected in depurated mussels. These results confirm previous studies showing that current controls and depuration treatments limiting the number of FIB do not guarantee the absence of viruses in shellfish.

Economics of mycotoxins: evaluating costs to society and cost-effectiveness of interventions.

The economic impacts of mycotoxins to human society can be thought of in two ways: (i) the direct market costs associated with lost trade or reduced revenues due to contaminated food or feed, and (ii) the human health losses from adverse effects associated with mycotoxin consumption. Losses related to markets occur within systems in which mycotoxins are being monitored in the food and feed supply. Food that has mycotoxin levels above a particular maximum allowable level is either rejected outright for sale or sold at a lower price for a different use. Such transactions can take place at local levels or at the level of trade among countries. Sometimes this can result in heavy economic losses for food producers, but the benefit of such monitoring systems is a lower risk of mycotoxins in the food supply. Losses related to health occur when mycotoxins are present in food at levels that can cause illness. In developed countries, such losses are often measured in terms of cost of illness; around the world, such losses are more frequently measured in terms of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). It is also useful to assess the economics of interventions to reduce mycotoxins and their attendant health effects; the relative effectiveness of public health interventions can be assessed by estimating quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) associated with each intervention. Cost-effectiveness assessment can be conducted to compare the cost of implementing the intervention with the resulting benefits, in terms of either improved markets or improved human health. Aside from cost-effectiveness, however, it is also important to assess the technical feasibility of interventions, particularly in low-income countries, where funds and infrastructures are limited.

Health economic impacts and cost-effectiveness of aflatoxin-reduction strategies in Africa: case studies in biocontrol and post-harvest interventions.

Advances in health economics have proven useful in evaluating the cost-effectiveness of interventions, where the benefit usually takes the form of improved health outcomes rather than market outcomes. The paper performs health-based cost-effectiveness analyses of two potential aflatoxin control strategies in Africa: (1) pre-harvest biocontrol, using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus competitively to exclude toxigenic strains from colonizing maize in Nigeria; and (2) post-harvest interventions in a package to reduce aflatoxin accumulation in groundnuts in Guinea. It is described how health benefits gained from each intervention, in terms of fewer aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma cases, can be compared with the costs of implementing the interventions. It is found that both interventions would be extremely cost-effective if applied widely in African agriculture. That is, the monetized value of lives saved and quality of life gained by reducing aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma far exceeds the cost of either biocontrol or the post-harvest intervention package to achieve those health benefits. The estimated cost-effectiveness ratio (CER; gross domestic product multiplied by disability-adjusted life years saved per unit cost) for biocontrol in Nigerian maize ranged from 5.10 to 24.8; while the estimated CER for the post-harvest intervention package in Guinean groundnuts ranged from 0.21 to 2.08. Any intervention with a CER > 1 is considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) to be 'very cost-effective', while an intervention with a CER > 0.33 is considered 'cost-effective'. Aside from cost-effectiveness, public health interventions must be readily accepted by the public, and must have financial and infrastructural support to be feasible in the parts of the world where they are most needed.

Real and perceived risks for mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds: challenges for food safety control.

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds, produced by the secondary metabolism of toxigenic moulds in the Aspergillus, Alternaria, Claviceps, Fusarium, Penicillium and Stachybotrys genera occurring in food and feed commodities both pre- and post-harvest. Adverse human health effects from the consumption of mycotoxins have occurred for many centuries. When ingested, mycotoxins may cause a mycotoxicosis which can result in an acute or chronic disease episode. Chronic conditions have a much greater impact, numerically, on human health in general, and induce diverse and powerful toxic effects in test systems: some are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, estrogenic, hemorrhagic, immunotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, dermotoxic and neurotoxic. Although mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products still occurs in the developed world, the application of modern agricultural practices and the presence of a legislatively regulated food processing and marketing system have greatly reduced mycotoxin exposure in these populations. However, in developing countries, where climatic and crop storage conditions are frequently conducive to fungal growth and mycotoxin production, much of the population relies on subsistence farming or on unregulated local markets. Therefore both producers and governmental control authorities are directing their efforts toward the implementation of a correct and reliable evaluation of the real status of contamination of a lot of food commodity and, consequently, of the impact of mycotoxins on human and animal health.

Mycotoxins in the food chain: human health implications.

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that can be produced in crops and other food commodities both pre- and post-harvest. When ingested, mycotoxins may cause a mycotoxicosis which can result in an acute or chronic disease episode. Chronic conditions have a much greater impact, numerically, on human health globally. Reduced growth and development, immunosuppression and cancer are chronic effects that have a higher incidence following continual exposure to low level mycotoxin ingestion as is experienced in many developing countries. It has been estimated that 25% of the world's crops are affected by mould or fungal growth and as stable, natural contaminants of the food chain, mycotoxin reduction requires a multifaceted approach, including farmers, government agencies, food processors and scientists. This can have a significant impact on the cost of food production. International regulatory standards for mycotoxins in food commodities determines the extent of global trade in contaminated commodities.

Mycotoxin reduction in Bt corn: potential economic, health, and regulatory impacts.

Genetically modified (GM) Bt corn, through the pest protection that it confers, has lower levels of mycotoxins: toxic and carcinogenic chemicals produced as secondary metabolites of fungi that colonize crops. In some cases, the reduction of mycotoxins afforded by Bt corn is significant enough to have an economic impact, both in terms of domestic markets and international trade. In less developed countries where certain mycotoxins are significant contaminants of food, Bt corn adoption, by virtue of its mycotoxin reduction, may even improve human and animal health. This paper describes an integrated assessment model that analyzes the economic and health impacts of two mycotoxins in corn: fumonisin and aflatoxin. It was found that excessively strict standards of these two mycotoxins could result in global trade losses in the hundreds of millions US dollars annually, with the US, China, and Argentina suffering the greatest losses. The paper then discusses the evidence for Bt corn's lower levels of contamination of fumonisin and aflatoxin, and estimates economic impacts in the United States. A total benefit of Bt corn's reduction of fumonisin and aflatoxin in the US was estimated at 23 million dollars annually. Finally, the paper examines the potential policy impacts of Bt corn's mycotoxin reduction, on nations that are making a decision on whether to allow commercialization of this genetically modified crop.

Biology and ecology of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species as related to economic and health concerns.

The fungal genus Aspergillus was established in 1729, and includes species that are adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions. Many aspergilli produce mycotoxins in foods that may be toxic, mutagenic or carcinogenic in animals. Most of the Aspergillus species are soil fungi or saprophytes but some are capable of causing decay in storage, disease in plants or invasive disease in humans and animals. Major agricultural commodities affected before or after harvest by fungal growth and mycotoxins include corn, peanuts, cottonseed, rice, tree nuts, cereal grains, and fruits. Animal products (meat, milk and eggs) can become contaminated because of diet. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. ochraceus, A. niger, A. fumigatus and other aspergilli produce mycotoxins of concern. These include the aflatoxins and ochratoxins, as well as cyclopiazonic acid, patulin, sterigmatocystin, gliotoxin, citrinin and other potentially toxic metabolites.

Contaminación de los alimentos de origen agrícola con residuos de plaguicidas en Panamá: situación de Azuero, 1993 / Contamination of agricultural foods with pesticide residuum in Panama: azuero condition 1993

Presenta aspectos como: presencia de residuos de plaguicidas en alimentos, efectos adversos de los residuos de plaguicidas, estudio de campo pra determinar residuos de plaguicidas en alimentos, métodos analíticos para determinar residuos tóxicos en alimentos y la situación de Panamá. Suministra datos de residuos en alimentos de origen agrícola en Azuero, 1993

Mycotoxins in review.

The putative involvement of mycotoxins in human diseases, including cancer, is reviewed with reference to ergotism, citreoviridin toxicosis, alimentary toxic aleukia, stachybotryotoxicosis, Balkan endemic nephropathy and aflatoxicoses. Analytical and sampling problems in determining the occurrence of and exposure to mycotoxins are discussed against the background that over 300 mycotoxins have been identified, produced by some 350 fungal species, and that the potency of some of them demands the quantitation of extremely small quantities of analyte. Mycotoxins associated with food and originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusaria, Penicillia and Claviceps spp. are reviewed with reference to the toxicological, regulatory and economic issues arising. It is concluded that continued efforts are needed to: identify and quantify human/animal exposure; estimate health risks and make defensible risk-benefit judgements; develop sampling plans based on experimental observation; arrive at agreed regulatory levels based on legitimate sampling plans, analytical capabilities and economic considerations; develop procedures for disposal of contaminated lots; and develop plant varieties resistant to fungal invasion.

Estudo da ocorrência de enteroparasitas em hortaliças comercializadas na regiäo metropolitana de Säo Paulo - SP, Brasil: II. Pesquisa de protozoários intestinais / Study of the occurrence of intestinal parasites os vegetables comercially traded in the metropolitan area of S. Paulo, SP - Brazil: II. Research into protozoan cysts

Foram analisadas hortaliças "in natura", comercializadas na Regiäo Metropolitana de Säo Paulo, SP-Brasil, visando à pesquisa e à identificaçäo de cistos de protozoários de interesse médico. As hortaliças constituídas de 50 amostras de cada variedade, consistiram em: alface (Lactuca sativa), variedades lisa e crespa, escarola (Chichorium sp) e agriäo (Nasturtium officinale). Os resultados evidenciaram elevados percentuais de contaminaçäo, em todas as variedades de hortaliças analisadas porém as freqüências de protozoários foram maiores no agriäo. As amostras de alfaces apresentaram os menores percentuais de contaminaçäo, enquanto que a escarola apresentou valores geralmente situados entre o agriäo e as alfaces. Observou-se uma grande variedade de protozoários, cujas freqüências de ocorrência na populaçäo residente na Regiäo Metropolitana de Säo Paulo säo igualmente elevadas. Os mais freqüêntes foram Entamoeba sp (com 4 e 8 núcleos) e Giardia sp. Foram também isolados cistos de Iodamoeba sp, Endolimax sp e Chilomastix sp. Os elevados níveis de contaminaçäo fecal encontrados nas amostras analisadas apontam para a importância dos alimentos na transmissäo de protozoários intestinais

[Hydatidosis in the IXth Region of Chile. A regional problem and challenge]. / Hidatidosis en la IX Región de Chile. Un problema y desafío regional.

Infection by Echinococcus granulosus is the main zoonosis affecting the human population of the IXth Region in southern Chile. Prevalence rates vary from 18.2 to 48 per 100,000. Animals are affected with prevalence rates of 40% for bovines, 39.5% for sheep and 14.8% for pork as estimated at the central meat processing plant in the city of Temuco. A cost of approximately $300,000 is estimated to treat affected individuals. Much greater losses may be estimated from unnotified meat processing in rural areas and from reduced yield of animal products such as wool an milk. Accordingly, a regional program for control of this zoonosis is urgently required.

Estimating the value of avoiding morbidity and mortality from foodborne illnesses.

When people consume products violating the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act they may experience morbidity or mortality from foodborne illness. Some studies have used survey data to estimate the dollar value of avoiding a few illnesses, but surveys are expensive and the resulting estimates cannot easily be generalized to the wide variety of foodborne illnesses. We develop a method that uses published data to estimate the value of avoiding morbidity and mortality from foodborne illnesses using two metrics--quality-adjusted life-years and dollars. The method first describes the effects of different illnesses on the patient and then converts these descriptions into changes in time spent in different health states with different relative utility weights. We use these estimated changes to compute losses in quality-adjusted life-years. We demonstrate our method and derive estimates for the value of avoiding a future case of botulism, salmonellosis, chronic hepatitis, and bladder cancer. Researchers can use our method to compare the value of avoiding all illnesses caused by violations of the FD&C Act. More importantly, government officials can use our method to quickly and cost-effectively generate morbidity and mortality valuation estimates for any illness for policy purposes.

Prevalence and economic implications of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in Uttar Pradesh State of India.

From 1980 to 1985, 3550 pigs, 530 cattle, 370 buffalo, 1850 sheep and 2100 goat of different breeds, age and sex from different parts of Uttar Pradesh State (India) were screened for the presence of cysticerci. Economic losses due to condemnation of affected meat were calculated. The overall incidence in pigs was 9.3%. Indigenous breeds brought from rural areas had the highest infection rate (8.9%). Cysticerci were commonly observed in the muscles of fore and hind limbs, tongue, neck and brain but a few cyst were also seen in other organs including heart, kidney and spleen. No statistical difference in the rate of infection with regards to age and sex was recorded. Sheep, goat, cattle and buffalo were found negative for this infection. Also 600 human faecal samples screened for the presence of adult T. solium revealed 2% infection.