Exposure to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and breast neoplasm incidence: A cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptors. As the predominant phthalate, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) has been considered possibly carcinogenic to humans but large-scale longitudinal evidence is needed to further clarify its carcinogenicity. OBJECTIVES: To examine the association between DEHP exposure and incidence of breast malignant neoplasm, carcinoma in situ and benign neoplasm. METHODS: A total of 273,295 women from UK Biobank cohort were followed up for a median of 13.5 years. Disease information was collected from National Health Service Cancer Registry and National Death Index. Baseline and yearly-average level of DEHP exposure were estimated for each individual by linking chemical monitoring record of European Environment Agency with home address of the participants by Kriging interpolation model. Cox proportional hazard model was employed to estimate the association between DEHP exposure and breast neoplasms. RESULTS: The median (IQR) of baseline and yearly-average DEHP concentration were 8000.25 (interquartile range: 6657.85-11,948.83) and 8000.25 (interquartile range: 1819.93-11,359.55) µg/L. The highest quartile of baseline DEHP was associated with 1.11 fold risk of carcinoma in situ (95 % CI, 1.00, 1.23, p < 0.001) and 1.27 fold risk of benign neoplasm (95 % CI, 1.05, 1.54, p < 0.001). As for yearly-average exposure, each quartile of DEHP was positively associated with higher risk of malignant neoplasm (HR, 1.05; 95 % CI, 1.03, 1.07, p < 0.001), carcinoma in situ (HR, 1.08; 95 % CI, 1.04, 1.11, p < 0.001) and benign neoplasm (HR, 1.13; 95 % CI, 1.07, 1.20, p < 0.001). Stratification analysis showed no significant modification effects on the DEHP-neoplasm relationship by menopausal status or ethnicity but a suggestive higher risk in younger women and those who underwent oral contraceptive pill therapy. In sensitivity analysis, the associations remained when excluding the cases diagnosed within 2 years post baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Real-world level of DEHP exposure was associated with higher risk of breast neoplasms. Because of the health risks associated with DEHP, its release to the environment should be managed.

Pollution characteristics, sources, and health risks of phthalate esters in ambient air: A daily continuous monitoring study in the central Chinese city of Nanchang.

In recent years, the atmospheric pollution caused by phthalate esters (PAEs) has been increasing due to the widespread use of PAE-containing materials. Existing research on atmospheric PAEs lacks long-term continuous observation and samples from cities in central China. To investigate the pollution characteristics, sources, and health risks of PAEs in the ambient air of a typical city in central China, daily PM2.5 samples were collected in Nanchang from November 2020 to October 2021. In this study, the detection and quantification of six significant PAE contaminants, namely diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), were accomplished using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The results revealed that the concentrations of DEP, DnBP, DEHP, and DnOP were relatively high. Higher temperatures promote the volatilization of PAEs, leading to an increase in the gaseous and particulate PAE concentrations in warm seasons and winter pollution scenarios. The results of principal component analysis show that PAEs mainly come from volatile products and polyvinylchloride plastics. Using positive matrix factorization analysis, it is shown that these two sources contribute 67.0% and 33.0% in atmosphere PAEs, respectively. Seasonally, the contribution of volatile products to both gaseous and particulate PAEs substantially increases during warm seasons. The residents in Nanchang exposed to PAEs have a negligible non-cancer risk and a potential low cancer risk. During the warm seasons, more PAEs are emitted into the air, which will increase the toxicity of PAEs and their impact on human health.

Exposure to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) increases the risk of cancer.

Cancer is a major socioeconomic burden that seriously affects the life and spirit of patients. However, little is known about the role of environmental toxicant exposure in diseases, especially ubiquitous di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) which is one of the most widely used plasticizers. Hence, the objective of this study was to assess the potential association between cancer and DEHP. The data were collected using the 2011-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data (n = 6147), and multiple logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the association. The concentrations of DEHP were calculated by each metabolite and split into quartiles for analysis. After adjusting for confounding factors, DEHP was significantly associated with an increased risk of cancer prevalence, and the metabolites of DEHP showed similar results (OR > 1.0, p < 0.05). Simultaneously, the association remained when the analyses were stratified by age and sex, and the risk of cancer appeared to be higher in male patients. In addition, further analysis suggested that DEHP exposure obviously increased the risk of female reproductive system cancer, male reproductive system cancer, and other cancers (OR > 1.0, p < 0.05) but not skin and soft tissue cancer. DEHP exposure is associated with the risk of cancer, especially female reproductive system cancer, male reproductive system cancer and other cancers.

Phthalate esters and nonylphenol concentrations correspond with microplastic distribution in anthropogenically polluted river sediments.

This paper presents the phthalate esters (PAEs), nonylphenol (NPs), and microplastics (MPs) in river sediments. Results showed that sediments near residential areas were mainly composed of fine particles, potentially influencing the adsorption of PAEs and NPs in the area. The concentrations of Σ10 PAEs in the sediments ranged between 2448 and 63,457 µg/kg dw, dominated by DEHP and DnOP. Microplastics were detected in all samples, with higher abundances found in sediments near residential areas dominated by polypropylene. Toxicological risk assessment indicated potential risks to sensitive aquatic organisms exposed to the sediments. Correlations between MPs, PAEs, and NPs suggest that MPs may serve as possible sources of PAEs in the sediments. Principal component analysis explained 95.4 % of the pollutant variability in the sediments. Overall, this study emphasizes the significance of monitoring and understanding the presence and interactions of PAEs and MPs in river sediments to assess their potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems.

Accurate determination of 11 representative phthalates and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate in polyvinyl chloride using isotope dilution-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.

Phthalates are mainly used as plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride (PVC). However, prolonged exposure to phthalates poses considerable risks to human health. Consequently, the utilization of phthalates in consumer products is subject to regulations, with a defined threshold of 0.1 %. In this study, we developed an accurate and simultaneous method for determination of 11 representative phthalates and a non-phthalate plasticizer (di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate, DEHT) in PVC as a higher-order reference method. Homogeneously prepared PVC samples, each containing approximately 0.1 % of the target plasticizer compounds, were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with deuterium-labeled phthalates and DEHT. The developed method could effectively separate and quantify all target plasticizers without interference with each other and potential overlap between the isomeric forms of phthalates, di-isodecyl phthalate, and di-isononyl phthalate. The developed method has high-order metrological quality, exhibiting exceptional selectivity, accuracy, repeatability (≤ 2.17 %), reproducibility (≤ 2.16 %), and relative expanded uncertainty (≤ 5.6 %). This analytical method is thus suitable for accurately assessing the target plasticizer levels in PVC products for ensuring compliance with the established 0.1 % threshold. This method was successfully applied to quantify twelve distinct plasticizers in PVC products obtained from the Korean market, validating its effectiveness and reliability in real-world scenarios.

Combined cytotoxicity of phthalate esters on HepG2 cells: A comprehensive analysis of transcriptomics and metabolomics.

Phthalate esters (PAEs), widely used as plasticizers, may pose a potential environmental and human hazard. The aim of this study was to compare the cytotoxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP)) after their exposure to HepG2 cells alone or in combination. HepG2 cells treated with individual/combined DEHP and DBP at a dose of 10-2 M for 24 h were selected for metabolome and transcriptome analysis. The results demonstrated that exposure to the mixtures of DEHP and DBP caused enhanced or reduced toxic effects regarding 8 pathways with 1065 downregulated genes and 643 upregulated genes, in comparison with those of single chemicals. The combined toxicity of mixture revealed both synergistic and antagonistic interactions between DEHP and DBP. Besides, combined exposure to DEHP and DBP promoted TCA cycle, pyrimidine, and purine metabolism, while an antagonistic effect on fatty acid derangement should require further investigation. To summarize, our results suggest that DEHP exposed alone or combined with DBP caused a variety of metabolic disorders, and the type of combination effects varied among metabolic pathways.

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate transfer from polyvinyl chloride sheet to several kinds of particles.

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) transfer from a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet to 9 kinds of particles, namely, polyethylene particles (1-10, 45-53, 90-106 µm), soda lime glass particles (1-38, 45-53, 90-106 µm), black forest soil, carbon black, and cotton linter, for the particle weights of 0.3, 1, 3, and 12 mg/cm2, were determined for 1, 3, 7, and 14 days using a passive flux sampler (PFS), as well as standard dust. Transfer amounts to small polyethylene particles (1-10 µm), black forest soil, and carbon black were large (8.5, 16, and 48 µg/mg-particle, respectively, for 0.3 mg/cm2 for 14 days) and were similar to standard house dust (35 µg/mg-particle). On the other hand, transfer amount to large polyethylene particles (0.056-0.12 µg/mg-particle), soda lime glass (0.18-0.31 µg/mg-particle), and cotton linter (0.42-0.78 µg/mg-particle) were much lower. The DEHP transfer amount to the particles was proportional to the surface area of the particles, but not associated with the organic content. The DEHP transfer amount per surface area to small polyethylene particles was larger than that of other particles, suggesting the contribution of absorption into the polyethylene particle. However, for the larger polyethylene particles with different manufacturing process that may have different crystallinity, the contribution of absorption was small. The amount of DEHP transferred to soda lime glass did not differ from 1 to 14 days, suggesting that an adsorption equilibrium was reached after 1 day. The estimated value of particle/gas partition coefficients of DEHP, Kpg, of small polyethylene, black forest soil and carbon black were much higher (3.6, 7.1, and 18 m3/mg, respectively) than those of large polyethylene and soda lime glass particles (0.028-0.11 m3/mg).

Isolation of Two Plasticizers, Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Terephthalate and Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate, from Capparis spinosa L. Leaves.

Many plants have been known to be contaminated and accumulate plasticizers from the environment, including water sources, soil, and atmosphere. Plasticizers are used to confer elasticity and flexibility to various fiber and plastic products. Consumption of plasticizers can lead to many adverse effects on human health, including reproductive and developmental toxicity, endocrine disruption, and cancer. Herein, we report for the first time that two plasticizers, bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), have been isolated from the leaves of Capparis spinosa L. (the caper bush), a plant that is widely used in food seasonings and traditional medicine. 297 mg/kg of DEHT and 48 mg/kg of DEHP were isolated from dried and grounded C. spinosa L. leaves using column chromatography and semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. Our study adds to the increase in the detection of plasticizers in our food and medicinal plants and to the alarming concern about their potential adverse effects on human health.

Contaminant occurrence, distribution and ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in the Persian Gulf.

Due to the increasing population of the world, the presence of harmful compounds, especially phthalate esters (PAEs), are one of the important problems of environmental pollution. These compounds are known as carcinogenic compounds and Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) for humans. In this study, the occurrence of PAEs and the evaluation of its ecological risks were carried out in the Persian Gulf. Water samples were collected from two industrial sites, a rural site and an urban site. Samples were analyzed using magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique to measure seven PAEs including Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), Dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), and Di-iso-butyl phthalate (DIBP). The BBP was not detected in any of the samples. The total concentration of six PAEs (Σ6PAEs) ranged from 7.23 to 23.7 µg/L, with a mean concentration of 13.7µg/L. The potential ecological risk of each target PAEs was evaluated by using the risk quotient (RQ) method in seawater samples, and the relative results declined in the sequence of DEHP >DIBP > DBP > DEP > DMP in examined water samples. DEHP had a high risk to algae, crustaceans and fish at all sites. While DMP and DEP showed lower risk for all mentioned trophic levels. The results of this study will be helpful for the implementation of effective control measures and remedial strategies for PAEs pollution in the Persian Gulf.

Migration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, diisononylcyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate from transfusion medical devices in labile blood products: A comparative study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plasticized with di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used material for medical transfusion devices. Not covalently bound to PVC, DEHP can migrate into blood products during storage. Recognized as an endocrine disruptor and raising concerns about its potential carcinogenicity and reprotoxicity, DEHP is gradually being withdrawn from the medical device market. Therefore, the use of alternative plasticizers, such as diisononylcyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT), as potential candidates for the replacement of DEHP in medical transfusion devices has been investigated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the quantity of PVC-plasticizers in the blood components according to their preparation, storage conditions and in function of the plasticizer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Whole blood was collected, and labile blood products (LBPs) were prepared by the buffy-coat method with a PVC blood bag plasticized either with DEHP, DINCH or DEHT. DINCH and DEHT equivalent concentrations were quantified in LBPs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry or coupled with UV and compared to DEHP equivalent concentrations. RESULTS: The plasticizer equivalent concentration to which a patient is exposed during a transfusion depends on the preparation of LBPs as well as their storage conditions, that is, temperature and storage time. At day 1, for all LBPs, the migration of DEHP is 5.0 and 8.5 times greater than DINCH and DEHT, respectively. At the end of the 49 days storage period, the DEHP equivalent concentration in red blood cells concentrate is statistically higher when compared to DINCH and DEHT, with maximal values of 1.85, 1.13 and 0.86 µg/dm2 /mL, respectively. CONCLUSION: In addition to lower toxicity, transfused patients using PVC-DEHT or PVC-DINCH blood bags are less exposed to plasticizers than using PVC-DEHP bags with a ranging exposure reduction from 38.9% to 87.3%, due to lower leachability into blood components.

Long-term DEHP/MEHP exposure promotes colorectal cancer stemness associated with glycosylation alterations.

Plasticizers are considered as environmental pollution released from medical devices and increased potential oncogenic risks in clinical therapy. Our previous studies have shown that long-term exposure to di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)/mono-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) promotes chemotherapeutic drug resistance in colorectal cancer. In this study, we investigated the alteration of glycosylation in colorectal cancer following long-term plasticizers exposure. First, we determined the profiles of cell surface N-glycomes by using mass spectrometry and found out the alterations of α2,8-linkages glycans. Next, we analyzed the correlation between serum DEHP/MEHP levels and ST8SIA6 expression from matched tissues in total 110 colorectal cancer patients. Moreover, clinical specimens and TCGA database were used to analyze the expression of ST8SIA6 in advanced stage of cancer. Finally, we showed that ST8SIA6 regulated stemness in vitro and in vivo. Our results revealed long-term DEHP/MEHP exposure significantly caused cancer patients with poorer survival outcome and attenuated the expression of ST8SIA6 in cancer cells and tissue samples. As expected, silencing of ST8SIA6 promoted cancer stemness and tumorigenicity by upregulating stemness-associated proteins. In addition, the cell viability assay showed enhanced drug resistance in ST8SIA6 silencing cells treated with irinotecan. Besides, ST8SIA6 was downregulated in the advanced stage and positively correlated with tumor recurrence in colorectal cancer. Our results imply that ST8SIA6 potentially plays an important role in oncogenic effects with long-term phthalates exposure.

Assessing human exposure to phthalate esters in drinking water migrated from various pipe materials and water filter elements during water treatments and storage.

Plastic water-supply pipes and filter element are frequently used in municipal water supply systems. Leaching of phthalate esters (PAEs) from these pipes and filter elements to drinking water has become a common concern among the public. In this study, the migrations of 16 phthalate esters (PAEs) in seven different kinds of water-supply product materials were investigated. Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) had the highest detection frequency of 54.4% in the water leaching samples of various water supply pipes and water filter elements samples, followed by Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP, 46/90, 51.1%). The maximum detected concentration level for di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), and DBP in the leaching experiment was below the regulatory limit values of 8 µg/L, 300 µg/L, and 3 µg/L for each compound in China standards for drinking water quality. The increasing of the water temperature, the lower pH of the water, and the increasing of the leaching time will increase the migration of PAEs from plastic pipes into water. The chronic daily intake of children aged < 1-12 years to PAEs through drinking water was higher than the rest of the population groups. Carcinogenic risks (CR) of DEHP via drinking water were neglectable for most groups of people, while for young children with age of 1-2 years old, the CR is an acceptable risk.

Gas-Particle Partitioning of Semivolatile Organic Compounds in a Residence: Influence of Particles from Candles, Cooking, and Outdoors.

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) represent an important class of indoor pollutants. The partitioning of SVOCs between airborne particles and the adjacent air influences human exposure and uptake. Presently, little direct experimental evidence exists about the influence of indoor particle pollution on the gas-particle phase partitioning of indoor SVOCs. In this study, we present time-resolved gas- and particle-phase distribution data for indoor SVOCs in a normally occupied residence using semivolatile thermal desorption aerosol gas chromatography. Although SVOCs in indoor air are found mostly in the gas phase, we show that indoor particles from cooking, candle use, and outdoor particle infiltration strongly affect the gas-particle phase distribution of specific indoor SVOCs. From gas- and particle-phase measurements of SVOCs spanning a range of chemical functionalities (alkanes, alcohols, alkanoic acids, and phthalates) and volatilities (vapor pressures from 10-13 to 10-4 atm), we find that the chemical composition of the airborne particles influences the partitioning of individual SVOC species. During candle burning, the enhanced partitioning of gas-phase SVOCs to indoor particles not only affects the particle composition but also enhances surface off-gassing, thereby increasing the total airborne concentration of specific SVOCs, including diethylhexyl phthalate.

Determination of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) along with probabilistic health risk assessment in fruit juice samples in Tehran, Iran.

In the present study, magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) method and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique were used to measure 6 PAE in fruit juice samples. The mean of total phthalic acid esters (Æ©PAEs) in all samples was 3.55 ± 0.66 µg/L. The mean concentration of DEHP (bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) in samples was 0.82 ± 0.31 µg/L, which was lower than the mentioned United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standard level in drinking water (6 µg/L for DEHP). The pineapple juice samples (4.44 ± 0.57 µg/L) and mango juice samples (2.77 ± 0. 1 µg/L) had maximum and minimum mean levels of Æ©PAEs, respectively. Also, results showed that brand B (3.76 ± 0.87 µg/L) and samples in the time of expiration date (3.64 ± 0.72 µg/L) had the highest PAE levels. The rank order Chronic Daily Intake (95%) values for adults were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > butylbenzyl phthalates (BBP) ([Formula: see text]) > diethyl phthalate (DEP) ([Formula: see text]) and for children were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > BBP (9.07E-04) > DEP ([Formula: see text]), which were below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) value. The noncancer risk of PAEs based on the target hazard quotient (THQ) was acceptable (< 1). The results exhibited that the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) was below the permissible limit (< [Formula: see text]). Therefore, the risk of carcinogenicity and noncarcinogenicity of PAEs in juices does not have adverse effects on human health.

Partition of phthalates among air, PM2 .5 , house dust and skin in residential indoor environments.

As a group of typical endocrine disrupters, phthalates are simultaneously present in a variety of environmental media and enter human body through multiple exposure pathways. In this study, field monitoring data were used to characterize the skin-air (Klg ), dust-air (Kd ), and PM2.5 -air (Kp ) partition coefficients of DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP. The median values of log(Klg ) in the summer and winter were 7.654 and 7.932, 7.265 and 7.902, 9.419 and 9.015 for DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP, respectively, and Klg was significantly higher in the winter. The median Kd (m3 /mg) in the summer (0.036-0.151 for DiBP, 0.021-0.036 for DnBP and 1.479-4.069 for DEHP) were significantly higher than the counterparts in the winter (0.027-0.065 for DiBP, 0.022-0.245 for DnBP, and 0.140-3.250 for DEHP). In addition, Kd was associated with material of surface and residence time of dust. The Kp values (m3 /µg) of DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP in the summer (0.053, 0.015, and 0.021) were also significantly higher than the counterparts in the winter (0.011, 0.004, and 0.025). The partition of phthalates was influenced by built environment, such as temperature, humidity, ventilation, indoor chemistry, smoking, and building age. Except Klg , there was substantial discrepancy between the estimates of K with empirical equations and the values of K based on field monitoring data in our study.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Personal PM2.5-Bound Phthalates Exposure for Adults in Hong Kong.

We performed personal PM2.5 monitoring involving 56 adult residents in Hong Kong. Additionally, paired personal and residential indoor fine particle (PM2.5) samples were collected from 26 homes and from 3 fixed monitoring locations (i.e., outdoor samples). Six PM2.5-bound phthalate esters (PAEs)-including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)-were measured using a thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometer method. Average ∑6PAEs (i.e., summation of six PAE congeners) concentrations in personal PM2.5 exposure (699.4 ng/m3) were comparable with those in residential indoors (646.9 ng/m3), and both were slightly lower than the outdoor levels. DEHP was the most abundant PAE congener (80.3%-85.0%) and found at the highest levels in different exposure categories, followed by BBP, DnBP, and DnOP. Strong correlations were observed between DEHP with DnBP (rs: 0.81-0.90; p < 0.01), BBP (rs: 0.81-0.90; p < 0.01), and DnOP (rs: 0.87-0.93; p < 0.01) in each exposure category. However, no apparent intercorrelations were shown for PAE congeners. Higher indoor concentrations and a stronger correlation between DMP and DEP were found compared with outdoor concentrations. Principal component analysis affirmed heterogeneous distribution and notable variations in PAE sources across different exposure categories. The average daily intakes of ∑6PAEs and DEHP via inhalation were 0.14-0.17 and 0.12-0.16 µg/kg-day for adults in Hong Kong. A time-weighted model was used to estimate PAE exposures incorporating residential indoor and outdoor exposure and time activities. The inhalation cancer risks attributable to measured and estimated personal exposure to DEHP exceeded the U.S. EPA's benchmark (1 × 10-6). The results provide critical information for mitigation strategies, suggesting that PAEs from both ambient and indoor sources should be considered when exploring the inhalation health risks of PAEs exposure.

Phthalate esters and plastic debris abundance in the Red Sea and Sharm Obhur and their ecological risk level.

The abundance of plastic debris (PDs) and its correlation with phthalic acid esters (PAEs), a class of pollutants associated with plastics, is not well understood, although PDs have been reported in relation to the release and distribution of aquatic pollutants such as PAEs. Few studies have linked the distribution of these pollutants in seawater. The current study examined the abundance and relationship of PDs and PAEs in seawater from Sharm Obhur and the Red Sea. Estimates were also made of their ecological impacts. Sharm Obhur is a semi-enclosed bay on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and is heavily impacted by human activities. Contaminants from Sharm Obhur may be transported into the deep waters of the Red Sea by the subsurface outflow. The PAEs concentrations in the study area ranged from 0.8 to 1224 ng/L. Among the six PAEs studied, diethyl phthalate (DEP) (22-1124 ng/L), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) (9-346 ng/L) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) (62-640 ng/L) were the predominant additives detected across all the sampling sits. Whereas the other PAEs, dimethyl phthalate (DMP) (5-76 ng/L), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) (4-25 ng/L) and di-n-octyl phthalate DnOp (0.5-80 ng/L) were generally lower in most samples. The sum of the six analyzed PAEs (∑6 PAEs) was lower at Sharm Obhur (587 ± 82 ng/L) and in the Red Sea shelf (677 ± 182 ng/L) compared to the Red Sea shelf break (1266 ± 354 ng/L). This suggests that degradation and adsorption of PAEs were higher in Sharm Obhur and on the shelf than on the shelf break. In contrast, there was no difference in the abundance of PDs between Sharm Obhur (0.04 ± 0.02 PDs/m3), Red Sea shelf (0.05 ± 0.02 PDs/m3) and in the Red Sea shelf break (0.03 ± 0.1 PDs/m3). Polyethylene (32%) and polypropylene (8%) were dominant, mostly smaller than 5 mm2 (78%), with the majority consisting of white (52%) and black (24%) fragments (39%), fibers (35%) and films (24%). A positive correlation between PAE concentration and abundance of PDs, suggests either a common source or a causal link through leaching. The ecological risk of ∑4PAEs (DMP, DEP, DBP and DEHP) ranged from (0.20-0.78), indicating a low to moderate risk for the Red Sea. The pollution index of PDs ranged from (0.14-0.36), showing that the Sharm Obhur and both sites of Red Sea suffered relatively low pollution.

Characteristics and Health Risks of Phthalate Ester Contamination in Soil and Plants in Coastal Areas of South China.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers in industrial and commercial products, and are classified as endocrine-disrupting compounds. In this study, we investigated the contamination characteristics and health risks of PAEs in the soil-plant system in coastal areas of South China. PAEs were detected in soil and plant samples at all 37 sampling sites. The total concentration of the 15 PAEs in soil samples ranged from 0.445 to 4.437 mg/kg, and the mean concentration was 1.582 ± 0.937 mg/kg. The total concentration of the 15 PAEs in plant samples ranged from 2.176 to 30.276 mg/kg, and the mean concentration was 8.712 ± 5.840 mg/kg. Di(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) were the major PAEs compounds in all samples. The selected contaminants exhibited completely different spatial distributions within the study area. Notably, higher concentrations of PAEs were found in the coastal Guangdong Province of South China. The average noncarcinogenic risks of Σ6 PAEs were at acceptable levels via dietary and nondietary routes. However, the noncarcinogenic risks posed by DEHP and DBP at some sampling sites were relatively high. Furthermore, dietary and nondietary carcinogenic risks were very low for BBP, but carcinogenic risks posed by DEHP via diet. The results suggest that PAEs in the coastal soil-plant system in South China, through human risk assessment, will induce some adverse effects on human health, especially in children. This study provides an important basis for risk management of PAEs in agriculture, and safety in coastal areas of South China.

Occurrence and health risk assessment of phthalate esters in tobacco and soils in tobacco-producing areas of Guizhou province, southwest China.

Flue-cured tobacco is one of the important sources of national economy in China. However, Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous contaminants in the cultivation and growth management of flue-cured tobacco, and attracting more and more attention. Here, six priority PAEs were detected in tobacco and soils and their residue characteristics, pollution sources were analyzed, and their exposure risks to the health of farmers were assessed. The concentration of six total PAEs ranged from 0.78 to 4.79 mg/kg in tobacco with the average of 1.75 mg/kg, and 0.84-25.68 mg/kg in soils with the average of 5.40 mg/kg. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) had the highest detection frequency (DF = 100%) both in soil and tobacco samples. DEHP was the most abundant of the total PAEs in soil and tobacco samples, with the mean contribution values of 71.0% and 58.8%, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicates that the major sources of PAEs in the tobacco-soil system were plastic films, fertilizers and pesticides. Health risk assessment suggests that the non-cancer hazard indexes (NCHI) of dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), DBP and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) in all samples for farmers were at acceptable levels (NCHI < 1), and the average carcinogenic hazard indexes (CHI) of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) and DEHP for farmers were 3.79 × 10-13 and 8.54 × 10-11 in soils, respectively, 8.23 × 10-13 and 1.95 × 10-11 in tobacco, respectively, which were considered to be very low level (CHI < 10-6). This study provides data on PAEs in tobacco and soils and their health risks which may provide valuable information to aid the management of tobacco cultivation and risk avoidance.

Determination of phthalates in bottled waters using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry.

Phthalates are synthetic chemicals widely used, mainly as plasticizers, which are ubiquitous and recognized as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. For investigation of phthalate residues leached from PET bottles into drinking water, a simple and sensitive method was developed, validated and applied to a series of real samples. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was used in direct immersion mode for concentration of phthalate traces from 10 mL of each water sample. Four commercially available SPME fibers were tested and compared, while six dialkyl phthalates were investigated: dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisopropyl phthalate (DiPP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). The extracted phthalic acid esters were separated and quantified by gas chromatography hyphenated with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) and a detection method based on multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was fully developed, optimized and validated. The fiber which showed the highest ability for extraction of phthalates was DVB/CAR/PDMS which combines a liquid polymeric coating (polydimethyl siloxane and divinylbenzene) with a carboxen porous sorbent layer. The obtained limit of detection was in the range between 0.3 and 2.6 ng mL-1. Thus, this fiber was used for extraction of phthalates from twelve commercial PET bottled water samples. All investigated water brands showed the presence of two to six phthalates at concentrations between 6.3 and 112.2 ng mL-1. The highest level was observed for DnBP, followed by DEHP, DiBP, DMP, DEP and DiPP.