Influence of distracted driving of online car-hailing drivers on overall driving performance.

The distraction affects driving performance and induces serious safety issues. To better understand distracted driving, this study examines the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance. This paper analyzes the distraction behavior (mobile phone use, entertainment activities, and passenger interference) under three driving tasks. The statistical results show that viewing or sending messages is common during driving. Smoking, phone calls, and talking to passengers are evident in cruising, ride request and drop-off, respectively. Then, overall driving performance is proposed based on velocity, longitudinal acceleration (longacc) and yaw_rate. It is divided into three categories, high, medium, and low, by k-means algorithms. The average speed increases from low to high performance; however, the longacc and yaw_rate decrease. Finally, the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance is analyzed using C4.5 algorithm. The result shows that when time is peak, the probability of high performance (HP) is higher than off-peak. The possibility of HP increases with the increase of duration; the number of, talking to passengers, listening to music or radio, eating; the duration of, viewing or sending messages, phone calls; but reduces with the increase of the number of phone calls. These findings provide theoretical support for driving performance evaluation.

Driving errors as a function of listening to music and FM radio: A simulator study.

OBJECTIVES: Driving is a dynamic activity that takes place in a constantly changing environment, carrying safety implications not only for the driver but also for other road users. Despite the potentially life-threatening consequences of incorrect driving behavior, drivers often engage in activities unrelated to driving. This study aims to investigate the frequency and types of errors committed by drivers when they are distracted compared to when they are not distracted. METHODS: A total of 64 young male participants volunteered for the study, completing four driving trials in a driving simulator. The trials consisted of different distraction conditions: listening to researcher-selected music, driver-selected music, FM radio conversation, and driving without any auditory distractions. The simulated driving scenario resembled a semi-urban environment, with a track length of 12 km. RESULTS: The findings of the study indicate that drivers are more prone to making errors when engaged in FM radio conversations compared to listening to music. Additionally, errors related to speeding were found to be more prevalent across all experimental conditions. CONCLUSIONS: These results emphasize the significance of reducing distractions while driving to improve road safety. The findings add to our understanding of the particular distractions that carry higher risks and underscore the necessity for focused interventions to reduce driver errors, especially related to FM radio conversations. Future research can delve into additional factors that contribute to driving errors and develop effective strategies to promote safer driving practices.

Distractions by work-related activities: The impact of ride-hailing app and radio system on male taxi drivers.

Use of ride-hailing mobile apps has surged and reshaped the taxi industry. These apps allow real-time taxi-customer matching of taxi dispatch system. However, there are also increasing concerns for driver distractions as a result of these ride-hailing systems. This study aims to investigate the effects of distractions by different ride-hailing systems on the driving performance of taxi drivers using the driving simulator experiment. In this investigation, fifty-one male taxi drivers were recruited. During the experiment, the road environment (urban street versus motorway), driving task (free-flow driving versus car-following), and distraction type (no distraction, auditory distraction by radio system, and visual-manual distraction by mobile app) were varied. Repeated measures ANOVA and random parameter generalized linear models were adopted to evaluate the distracted driving performance accounting for correlations among different observations of a same driver. Results indicate that distraction by mobile app impairs driving performance to a larger extent than traditional radio systems, in terms of the lateral control in the free-flow motorway condition and the speed control in the free-flow urban condition. In addition, for car-following task on urban street, compensatory behaviour (speed reduction) is more prevalent when distracted by mobile app while driving, compared to that of radio system. Additionally, no significant difference in subjective workload between distractions by mobile app and radio system were found. Several driver characteristics such as experience, driving records, and perception variables also influence driving performances. The findings are expected to facilitate the development of safer ride-hailing systems, as well as driver training and road safety policy.

Identifying distracted-driving events from on-road observations using a moving vehicle: A case study in New Jersey.

Distracted driving is a major traffic safety concern in the USA. To observe and detect distracted-driving events, various methods (e.g., surveys, videos, and simulations) involving the collection of cross-sectional data from individual subjects have been used in the transportation field. In this study, we employed an unconventional approach of on-road observations using a moving vehicle to collect data on distracted-driving events for multiple subjects in New Jersey. A data-collection crew member continuously navigated selected corridors to record driver-distraction events. A GPS (Global Positioning System) tracker was used to timestamp and record the location of each incident. Two non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis test) were performed to identify the significance of the variations in distracted-driving behaviors due to changes in temporal variables (e.g., day of the week, season), the type of roadway, and the geometric properties of the roadway. The results indicated that cellphone use was the leading type of distraction. Additionally, "handheld phone use (phone to ear)," "fidgeting/grooming," "drinking/eating/smoking," and "talking to passengers" events were significantly affected by the time of day and the geometric properties of the roadway. The results of this study are expected to assist state and local agencies in promoting awareness of distracted driving with the aim of reducing the frequency and severity of distracted driving-related crashes.

Influence of cannabis use history on the impact of acute cannabis smoking on simulated driving performance during a distraction task.

Objective: This research explores the driving performance of people who use cannabis daily or occasionally during distraction tasks performed following acute cannabis use.Methods: Healthy adults aged 25 to 45 years with different cannabis usage histories were recruited to participate in a within-subjects controlled experiment using a car-based driving simulator. Participants were classified as having daily use (n = 31), occasional use (1 or 2 times per week; n = 24), or no-use (n = 30). Participants completed a practice drive followed by four 5-10 minute driving scenarios during the baseline period. Participants then smoked self-procured cannabis flower ad libitum for up to 15 minutes. Thirty minutes later, they completed four additional 5-10 minute scenarios. Scenarios were paired according to difficulty and randomized across the baseline and post-use periods. Each scenario contained between 0 and 3 repetitions of a distraction task where the participant was prompted by an audio message to select an app from a 4 × 5 grid displayed on a mounted tablet, a step that would require briefly looking away from the roadway. Measures of driving performance (lane departures, standard deviation of lateral position) were assessed during the five-second period following the audio trigger and analyzed using generalized linear mixed models.Results: Those with a pattern of occasional use were significantly more likely to experience a lane departure during distraction periods after acute cannabis use relative to baseline (OR = 3.71, p = 0.04, CI = 1.04, 13.17), while those with daily use did not exhibit a similar increase (OR = 1.56, p = 0.43, CI = 0.52, 4.64). Changes in departure risk were significantly greater for the occasional use group compared to no-use (p = 0.02), but not for the daily use group compared to no-use (p = 0.18). However, following acute use, those who use daily exhibited decreases in speed relative to baseline in comparison to the changes observed in the no-use group (p = 0.02), while differences between occasional and no-use did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.052). Differences in standard deviation of lateral position were not statistically significant, likely due to the short duration of tasks.Conclusions: These results find the largest potential safety concerns associated with a pattern of occasional use, who displayed an increase in lane departures after acute cannabis smoking. Those in the daily use group decreased their speed, which may be interpreted as compensation for drug effects. Further research is needed to understand the effects during longer and more complex secondary tasks.

E2DR: A Deep Learning Ensemble-Based Driver Distraction Detection with Recommendations Model.

The increasing number of car accidents is a significant issue in current transportation systems. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), road accidents are the eighth highest top cause of death around the world. More than 80% of road accidents are caused by distracted driving, such as using a mobile phone, talking to passengers, and smoking. A lot of efforts have been made to tackle the problem of driver distraction; however, no optimal solution is provided. A practical approach to solving this problem is implementing quantitative measures for driver activities and designing a classification system that detects distracting actions. In this paper, we have implemented a portfolio of various ensemble deep learning models that have been proven to efficiently classify driver distracted actions and provide an in-car recommendation to minimize the level of distractions and increase in-car awareness for improved safety. This paper proposes E2DR, a new scalable model that uses stacking ensemble methods to combine two or more deep learning models to improve accuracy, enhance generalization, and reduce overfitting, with real-time recommendations. The highest performing E2DR variant, which included the ResNet50 and VGG16 models, achieved a test accuracy of 92% as applied to state-of-the-art datasets, including the State Farm Distracted Drivers dataset, using novel data splitting strategies.

Distracted Driving Among Patients with Trauma Attending Fracture Clinics in Canada: The Canadian Multicenter DRIVSAFE Study.

BACKGROUND: Globally, every 25 seconds, a person dies in a motor vehicle crash (MVC) and 58 people get injured. Adding to the rising distracted-driving rates is the rapid growth of the number of cars in circulation globally. This study examined the proportion of distracted drivers among patients attending orthopaedic fracture clinics, as well as associated factors. METHODS: In this large, multicenter, cross-sectional study, we recruited 1,378 patients across 4 Canadian fracture clinics. Eligible patients completed an anonymous questionnaire about distracted driving. We calculated the percentages of specific distractions. Using questionnaire responses and published crash risk odds ratios (ORs), patients were grouped as distraction-prone and distraction-averse. Regression analyses to determine the association of demographic characteristics with distracting behaviors and the odds of being in a distraction-related crash were performed. RESULTS: In total, 1,358 patients (99.7%) self-reported distracted driving. Prevalent distractions included talking to passengers (98.7%), distractions outside the vehicle (95.5%), listening to the radio (97.6%), adjusting the radio (93.8%), and daydreaming (61.2%). Of the 1,354 patients who acknowledged mobile phone distractions, 889 (65.7%) accepted phone calls and continued driving, 675 (49.8%) read electronic messages, and 475 (35.1%) sent electronic messages. Younger age (OR, 0.94 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.91 to 0.97]; p < 0.001) and household incomes of $80,000 to <$100,000 (OR, 1.92 [95% CI, 1.17 to 3.14]; p = 0.01) and ≥$100,000 (OR, 2.48 [95% CI, 1.57 to 3.91]; p < 0.001) were associated with being in the distraction-prone group. Distraction-prone patients were twice as likely to be in a distraction-related MVC (OR, 1.98 [95% CI, 1.43 to 2.74]; p < 0.001). Of 113 drivers who sustained injuries from MVCs, 20 (17.7%) acknowledged being distracted. Of 729 patients who reported being the driver in a previous MVC in their lifetime, 226 (31.0%) confirmed being distracted. CONCLUSIONS: This survey-based study showed that driving distractions were near universally acknowledged. The pervasiveness of distractions held true even when only the more dangerous distractions were considered. One in 6 patients in MVCs reported being distracted in their current crash, and 1 in 3 patients disclosed being distracted in an MVC during their lifetime.

What's it Worth?: The Costs and Benefits of an Initiative to Decrease Post-Call Fatigued Driving Among Surgery Residents.

BACKGROUND: In 2017 the ACGME enacted new regulations requiring sponsoring institutions to ensure "safe transportation options for residents who may be too fatigued to safely return home." We investigate here the impact of a pilot "Safe Ride" program designed to mitigate the risks of fatigued driving. METHODS: During a 2-month pilot period at a single university-affiliated general surgery residency with four urban clinical sites, all residents (n = 72) were encouraged to hire a rideshare (e.g., Uber, Lyft) to and from 24-h clinical shifts if they felt too fatigued to drive safely. The cost of the rideshare was fully reimbursed to the resident. The impact of this intervention was evaluated using utilization data and a post-intervention resident survey. RESULTS: A total of 16.6% of trainees utilized a rideshare at least one time. Sixty-three post-call rides were taken, predominantly by junior residents (92.4%) and for commutes greater than 15 miles (91%). The cost for the 60-day pilot was $3030. Comparing pre-intervention to post-intervention data, there was a significant improvement in the reported frequency of falling asleep or nearly asleep while driving (P < 0.001). Trainees nearly unanimously (98%) supported efforts to make the program permanent. DISCUSSION: Driving while fatigued is common among surgical residents, with increased risk among junior residents, during longer commutes and following longer shifts. A reimbursed rideshare program effectively targets these risk factors and was associated with a significant decrease in rates of self-reported fatigued driving. Future efforts should focus on strategies to promote use of reimbursed rideshare programs while remaining cost efficient.

Narrative persuasion and stigma: Using news accounts to denormalize texting while driving.

Despite nearly universal texting while driving bans in U.S. states, distracted driving still poses a major risk for American motorists and pedestrians on a daily basis. We argue texting while driving behavior, due to its cultural, social, and psychological motivations, may be addressed by cultivating a stigma to denormalize TWD much in the same way public health campaigns and bans did with tobacco use. While extant strategies may similarly stigmatize this risky behavior, we contend the stigmatizing effect of news narratives offers an untapped and unexamined resource. In this paper we draw on emergent findings in narrative persuasion work to present an exploratory analysis and evidence indicates news narratives, through narrative engagement, can both stigmatize TWD behavior and diminish attitudes toward distracted driving. These initial findings are then validated against an independent sample. If applied widely, this method may be applied to increase social pressure against distracted driving, leading to fewer people engaging in TWD behavior, and making roads safer.

Evaluation of a population health strategy to reduce distracted driving: Examining all "Es" of injury prevention.

BACKGROUND: Cell phone use while driving (CPWD) increases the risk of crashing and is a major contributor to injuries and deaths. The objective of this study was to describe the evaluation of a multifaceted, evidence-based population health strategy for the reduction of distracted driving. METHODS: A multipronged campaign was undertaken from 2014 to 2016 for 16- to 44-year-olds, based on epidemiology, focused on personal stories and consequences, using the "Es" of injury prevention (epidemiology, education, environment, enforcement, and evaluation). Education consisted of distracted driving videos, informational cards, a social media AdTube campaign, and a movie theater trailer, which were evaluated with a questionnaire regarding CPWD attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. Spatial analysis of data within a geographic information system was used to target advertisements. A random sample telephone survey evaluated public awareness of the campaign. Increased CPWD enforcement was undertaken by police services and evaluated by ARIMA time series modeling. RESULTS: The AdTube campaign had a view rate of >10% (41,101 views), slightly higher for females. The top performing age group was 18- to 24-year-olds (49%). Our survey found 61% of respondents used handheld CPWD (14% all of the time) with 80% reporting our movie trailer made them think twice about future CPWD. A stakeholder survey and spatial analysis targeted our advertisements in areas of close proximity to high schools, universities, near intersections with previous motor vehicle collisions, high traffic volumes, and population density. A telephone survey revealed that 41% of the respondents were aware of our campaign, 17% from our print and movie theater ads and 3% from social media. Police enforcement campaign blitzes resulted in 160 tickets for CPWD. Following campaign implementation, there was a statistically significant mean decrease of 462 distracted driving citations annually (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: A multifaceted, evidence-based population health strategy using the Es of injury prevention with interdisciplinary collaboration is a comprehensive method to be used for the reduction of distracted driving. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, level IV.

Investigating in-vehicle distracting activities and crash risks for young drivers using structural equation modeling.

Distracted driving has been considered one of the main reasons for traffic crashes in recent times, especially among young drivers. The objectives of this study were to identify the distracting activities in which young drivers engage, assess the most distracting ones based on their experiences, and investigate the factors that might increase crash risk. The data were collected through a self-report questionnaire. Most participants reported frequent cell phone use while driving. Other reported activities include adjusting audio devices, chatting with passengers, smoking, eating, and drinking. A structural equation model was constructed to identify the latent variables that have a significant influence on crash risk. The analysis showed that in-vehicle distractions had a high effect on the crash likelihood. The results also indicated that dangerous driving behavior had a direct effect on the crash risk probability, as well as on the rash driving latent variables. The results provide insight into distracted driving behavior among young drivers and can be useful in developing enforcement and educational strategies to reduce this type of behavior.

Brain-based limitations in attention and secondary task engagement during high-fidelity driving simulation among young adults.

Distracted driving remains a leading factor in fatal motor vehicle crashes, particularly in young drivers. Due to ongoing neuromaturation, attention capabilities are changing and improving throughout young adulthood. Here, we sought to bridge neuroscience with driving simulation by evaluating the effects of driving on attention processing through a selective auditory attention task. Participants (18-25 years old) engaged in an auditory attention task during LOAD (driving a high-fidelity simulator) and No-LOAD conditions (sitting in the parked simulator). For the auditory task, participants responded to a target auditory tone in a target ear. The event-related potential components, collected from frontal and posterior regions, P2 and P3, were used to evaluate attention processing across LOAD and No-LOAD conditions for attended and unattended stimuli. Data from 24 participants were evaluated in repeated measures ANOVAs, considering interactions between load and attention conditions for the P2 and P3 components of the cortical region. We observed a significant difference between response to attended and unattended stimuli for posterior P2 and P3 responses at the frontal and posterior midline sites. Comparing LOAD and No-LOAD conditions, there was a significant difference for P2 response at the posterior site and P3 response at the frontal site. A significant interaction between load and attended stimuli was found for P3 response at the posterior site. These data document differences in neural processing of auditory stimuli during high-fidelity simulated driving versus sitting parked in the simulator. Findings suggest the cognitive load of driving affects auditory attention.

Preventing distracted driving: A program from initiation through to evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Distracted driving(DD) is a public health threat. We initiated a DD program where the objective was to attract parents to a website to download a parent tool box. We report the effectiveness of media strategy. METHODS: An evidence based interactive DD website was developed which provided a parent tool box. Two different digital media strategies were used. Parent(P)/Teen(T) focus groups were used. Analytics, orders during each media strategy are reported as well the results of the focus group. RESULTS: There were 73972 visits (>2 min) to the site. The tool box was downloaded/ordered from 10 different countries and 50 states. There were 603 requests via the internet for tools kits, 159 in the first campaign and 444 in the second campaign. Average website time increased from 2.33 min in media campign 1-5.29 min in campaign 2. The focus groups reported the: website was "very useful" in 9/15-P vs 10/15- T. CONCLUSION: Contextual placement digital advertising and focused social media was more effective in attracting parents to the website, and increased downloads. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III. TYPE OF STUDY: prospective/retrospective study with economic and valued based evaluations.

Falta de atenção ao conduzir veículo automotor como causa de acidentes de trânsito nas rodovias federais brasileiras / Distracted driving of a motor vehicle on Brazilian federal highways as a cause of traffic accidents

RESUMO: Introdução: Falta de atenção ao conduzir (FAC) veículo é tida como fator de risco em ascensão para Acidentes de Transporte Terrestre (ATT). Objetivo: Os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar a tendência do número de vítimas em acidentes por FAC e do número de infrações por uso de aparelho telefônico celular nas rodovias federais brasileiras e problematizar a categoria FAC tal como vem sendo empregada no país. Método: Estudo de séries temporais, com dados de acidentes com vítimas disponibilizados pela Polícia Rodoviária Federal, cuja causa tenha sido FAC, no período de 2007 a 2016, e dados de infrações por dirigir utilizando celular. Resultados: Identificou-se tendência de aumento mensal do número de vítimas de acidentes por FAC no país até meados de 2011 (variação percentual mensal - VPM = 0,57%), seguida de diminuição significante (VPM = -0,45%). As macrorregiões apresentaram comportamento similar, com exceção do Sudeste. Houve tendência de aumento mensal do número de infrações pelo uso de celular pelo condutor de 2007 a 2013. Conclusão: A tendência é de aumento mensal do número de vítimas decorrentes de FAC no Brasil e na maioria das macrorregiões até 2011, com posterior tendência de declínio. A inexatidão da expressão "falta de atenção" compromete a qualidade dos dados e, por consequência, o adequado dimensionamento das vítimas atribuível a esse fator de risco. A díade celular-condução pode estar na origem de acidentes com vítimas por FAC no país.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Distracted driving (DD) of a motor vehicle is considered an increasing risk factor for land transport accidents. Objective: To identify the tendency in the number of victims in DD accidents and in the number of offences due to cell phone use on Brazilian federal highways, as well as analyze the DD category in depth as it is being used in the country. Method: A time series study with data on accidents with victims, made available by the Federal Highway Police, whose cause was distracted driving, from 2007 to 2016 and data on offences for driving using a cell phone. Results: There was a tendency towards a monthly increase in the number of distracted driving accident victims in the country up to mid-2011 (percentage monthly variation - PMV = 0.57%), followed by a significant decrease (PMV = -0.45%). Macro-regions showed similar behavior, except in the Southeast. There was a monthly increase in the number of offences caused by drivers using cell phones from 2007 to 2013. Conclusion: There was a tendency towards monthly increases in the number of victims of distracted driving in Brazil and in most macro-regions up to 2011, followed by a subsequent downward tendency. The inaccurate nature of the expression "distraction" compromises the quality of the data and, consequently, the adequate estimation of victims attributable to this risk factor. The cell phone-driving dyad could be the root cause of accidents with victims caused by distracted driving in the country.

Determining the incidence of distraction among trauma patients in all modes of transportation.

BACKGROUND: The use of distracting technology is an increasing source of risk for injury among trauma patients. Both drivers and pedestrians show increased unsafe behavior. The data for prevalence and risk for distraction in trauma has varied widely. Our hypothesis is that distraction is more highly prevalent and widely distributed among all mechanisms of injury and variety of trauma patients. METHODS: A 10-question survey of adult trauma victims at a Level I trauma center regarding distraction at time of event was performed, examining age, sex, ethnicity, education level, mode of injury and role in the accident (driver, passenger, pedestrian, bicyclist, motorcyclist). Multiple-variable logistic regression was performed to identify risk factors for distraction. RESULTS: From June 2016 to October 2018, 1,316 patients were surveyed, and 1,011 (76.8%) patients reported their role in the traffic accident. The prevalence of distraction was 21.73% among drivers, 9.01% among passengers, 16.50% among pedestrians, 20.00% among bicyclists, and 8.09% among motorcyclists. Males (odds ratio [OR], 1.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.26-2.67) as well as all Others (OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.10-3.98) showed statistically significant increased risk for distraction. Motorcyclist (OR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.13-0.50) and passenger (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.18-0.77) roles during collision were a lowered risk of distraction. Furthermore, Asian/Pacific Islanders (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 0.94-2.79) trended toward being at greater risk for distraction. CONCLUSION: Distraction is prevalent among a wide range of traffic accident victims, not just drivers. Males as well as all Others are more likely to be distracted. In contrast, motorcyclists and passengers are less likely to be distracted. Further studies to assist in determining effective interventions and public safety efforts aimed at specific at-risk groups beyond motor vehicle drivers are warranted. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiological, level V.

Evaluating the relationship between adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and riding behavior of motorcyclists.

BACKGROUND: Motorcycling is one of the main causes of injury, and motorcyclists are vulnerable to road traffic injuries. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults is presumably one of the determinants of road traffic injuries and motorcyclists' risky behavior. Despite the few studies on the relationship between motorcycle injuries and adult ADHD, their association has not been investigated using standardized instruments. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between motorcyclists' adult ADHD and risky riding behaviors. METHODS: This community-based, cross-sectional study was performed on 340 motorcyclists in Bukan city, west Azerbaijan province, Iran in 2015 and 2016 using a cluster-random sampling in seven areas of the city. According to the city map used by Bukan's Health Centers, the city was divided into 14 clusters. Then, seven clusters (out of 14) were selected randomly. To reach the anticipated sample size, the data were collected from these seven clusters. In this study, the data collection instruments were: standard Motorcycle Rider Behavior Questionnaire (MRBQ), Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scales (CAARS) questionnaire and a checklist designed by the researchers. The Stata 13 software package was used to analyze the collected data. Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression were performed to study the linear relationship between ADHD screening and MRBQ scores. RESULTS: All 340 participants were male and the mean age was 30.2 years (SD=9.1). In addition, 22.1% of motorcyclists had a history of motorcycle crash. Bivariate analysis showed a significant association between risky riding behaviors and age, motorcycling records, and mean of riding hours per day (P-value less than 0.05). Multivariate analysis confirmed the correlation between ADHD and risky riding behaviors in all subscales (A, B, D) (p less than 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Those with a high ADHD screening score are more likely to have risky riding behaviors.

The influence of an injury prevention program on young road users: a German experience.

PURPOSE: Trauma remains a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in youth. The Prevent Alcohol and Risk Related Trauma in Youth (P.A.R.T.Y.) program is an injury prevention program. The aim of the study was to analyze the influence on risk-taking behaviors and risk awareness on young road users by a pre-post-questionnaire. METHODS: A pre-post intervention study was performed using a standardized questionnaire. The questionnaire contained three sections with different items (in total 22) to identify differences regarding students' risk behavior and risk awareness. Data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test with significance defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: The study sample contains 193 students (age 14-17, 44% male). We found significant differences for asking if a student "fastens his/her helmet's chinstrap when driving a motorbike" (p = 0.001) and for the question "Do you wear a helmet when you go rollerblading" (p = 0.008). After attending the program, participants would decrease the use of a mobile phone while driving (p = 0.038) and the understanding of the risk "speeding" and "cycling without a helmet" significantly increased. CONCLUSIONS: The P.A.R.T.Y. program focuses on items like "use of helmet and mobile phones" and "alcohol/drug abuse". Evaluating the program helps to uncover vulnerabilities and to enhance important effects. Some of these items are addressed by the program, whereas some are not. It will be important to improve the program according to address topics that have not shown significant improvements, so that students learn more about the dangers and the right behavior in road traffic.

Systematic review of observational studies on secondary task engagement while driving.

The last decade has seen a worldwide exponential increase in the use of mobile information systems, especially smartphones. This trend covers all areas of life, and also seems to include phone use while driving. In order to assess the scope of secondary task occupation, especially smartphone use while driving, observation studies from outside the car have been established as an efficient and valid method. A review of international studies using traffic observation was done finding 51 publications with a total of 117 observation studies with more than 1,800,000 single observations at more than 17,500 sites from nine different countries. The review describes the relevant aspects of the observation methods and gives an overview about the trends found in the data. As the methods differ widely over the years as well as between the countries and studies, an integration of the results is not possible. However, from all studies it is very clear that smartphone use has increased including not only phoning while driving but also, more important to traffic safety, using apps and texting on the smartphone. Additional observable secondary tasks were only rarely examined. Thus, further research using observational studies is strongly recommended. Suggestions are given with regard to the methodology which can contribute to get comparable and valid results across countries and studies.

Relationships Between Older Drivers' Cognitive Abilities as Assessed on the MoCA and Glance Patterns During Visual-Manual Radio Tuning While Driving.

Objective: Research has established that long off-road glances increase crash risk, and other work has shown increased off-road glance behavior in older drivers. This study investigated the relationship between older drivers' (M = 66.3, range 61-69 years) cognitive abilities and the duration of off-road glances while engaged in secondary visual-manual activities. Method: Twenty-two drivers completed the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) prior to driving an instrumented vehicle and completing a set of radio-tuning tasks. Glance behavior was recorded and manually coded into 7 glance regions (toward the forward roadway, instrument cluster, center stack, rearview mirror, left, right, and other). Results: On average, older drivers with higher MoCA scores used shorter glances and glanced away from the forward roadway for less total time when manually tuning the radio. Discussion: These findings suggest that lower MoCA scores may represent a driving force behind the "age" differences reported in earlier studies of off-road glance behavior. Questions are raised concerning the identification of MoCA scores that might be used as inclusion cut-points in driving research and in identifying individuals needing further evaluation related to suitability for continuance of driving.

How safe is tuning a radio?: using the radio tuning task as a benchmark for distracted driving.

Drivers engage in non-driving tasks while driving, such as interactions entertainment systems. Studies have identified glance patterns related to such interactions, and manual radio tuning has been used as a reference task to set an upper bound on the acceptable demand of interactions. Consequently, some view the risk associated with radio tuning as defining the upper limit of glance measures associated with visual-manual in-vehicle activities. However, we have little knowledge about the actual degree of crash risk that radio tuning poses and, by extension, the risk of tasks that have similar glance patterns as the radio tuning task. In the current study, we use counterfactual simulation to take the glance patterns for manual radio tuning tasks from an on-road experiment and apply these patterns to lead-vehicle events observed in naturalistic driving studies. We then quantify how often the glance patterns from radio tuning are associated with rear-end crashes, compared to driving only situations. We used the pre-crash kinematics from 34 crash events from the SHRP2 naturalistic driving study to investigate the effect of radio tuning in crash-imminent situations, and we also investigated the effect of radio tuning on 2,475 routine braking events from the Safety Pilot project. The counterfactual simulation showed that off-road glances transform some near-crashes that could have been avoided into crashes, and glance patterns observed in on-road radio tuning experiment produced 2.85-5.00 times more crashes than baseline driving.