Network pharmacology strategy to investigate the pharmacological effects of Suanzaoren Decoction on insomnia

Abstract Suanzaoren Decoction (SZRD) is an ancient prescription used in the treatment of insomnia. This study aimed to investigate the components and targets of SZRD in treating insomnia. First, the compounds of five herbs in SZRD were collected from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP), and the putative targets for treating insomnia were obtained from DrugBank to construct the herb-compound-target- disease network. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed in the STRING database, and then Gene Ontology functional enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed to predict the mechanism of action of intersection target. Finally, 30 mice were divided into five groups: control, model, and quercetin groups (100, 50, 25 mg/kg). The sleep latency and duration of pentobarbital-induced sleeping were measured. The production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and γ-aminobutyric acid (γ-GABA) was detected by using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit (ELISA), and Gamma-aminobutyric acid type a receptor subunit alpha1 (GABRA1) was tested by Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). A total of 152 active ingredients, including 80 putative targets of SZRD, were obtained. The main active compounds included quercetin and kaempferol, and the key targets involved IL-6 and nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3). The results of pathway enrichment analysis indicated that the putative targets of SZRD mainly participated in Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction. The experiment of P-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA)-induced insomnia model showed that quercetin obviously shortened the sleep latency and prolonged the sleep duration of the insomnia model. The production of IL-6, γ-GABA, and GABRA1 mRNA was significantly increased in mice treated with quercetin. This study predicted the active ingredients and potential targets of SZRD on insomnia on the basis of a systematic network pharmacology approach and illustrated that SZRD might exert hypnotic effects via regulating IL-6, γ-GABA, and GABRA1

Trastornos del sueño en emergencias y desastres / Sleep disorders in emergencies and disasters

Los trastornos del sueño son frecuentes en la población y una causa importante de morbilidad. El objetivo de esta revisión es evaluar las alteraciones del sueño en periodos de emergencia y desastres. A lo largo de la historia, la esfera biopsicosocial y el sueño de las personas ha sido abrumada por múltiples eventos a gran escala, tales como desastres naturales, tragedias provocadas por el hombre, conflictos bélicos, crisis sociales y pandemias, cuya experiencia puede derivar en problemas de salud a corto, mediano y/o largo plazo. En los estudios analizados, se ha observado el impacto negativo de las emergencias y desastres en el sueño, por lo que ha cobrado gran relevancia la difusión y promoción de medidas que incentiven el buen dormir. Debido a la llegada del COVID-19 y a la situación de confinamiento por periodos prolongados en el hogar para prevenir su propagación, han surgido importantes consecuencias a nivel social. Ciertos factores ocupacionales y características de los desastres se asocian a mayor comorbilidad, un alto riesgo de experimentar agotamiento físico, trastornos psicológicos e insomnio en grupos altamente vulnerables, como lo son los profesionales de la salud, rescatistas y socorristas. El insomnio es el trastorno de sueño más frecuente en la población general y su empeoramiento en el contexto de pandemia por COVID-19 representa un nuevo problema en salud pública. Es por ello, que es indispensable promover campañas de prevención de salud física y mental orientados a la pesquisa precoz y manejo de patologías de la esfera psicosocial, dentro de las posibilidades socioeconómicas.

Sleep disorders are common in the population and are major cause of morbidity. The objective of this review is to assess sleep disturbances in times of emergency and disasters. Throughout history, the biopsychosocial field and sleep have been affected by multiple large-scale events, such as natural disasters, man-caused tragedies, armed conflicts, social crises and pandemics, the experience of which can lead to short, medium and/or long term health problems. In several studies, the negative impact of emergencies and disasters on sleep have been analyzed, emphasizing the importance of the diffusion and promotion of measures that encourage good sleep. The arrival of COVID-19 and consequent home confinement for prolonged periods caused important social consequences. Certain occupational factors and characteristics of disasters are associated with greater comorbidity: a high risk of experiencing physical exhaustion, psychological disorders and insomnia, especially in highly vulnerable groups, such as health professionals, rescuers and first aids-responders. Insomnia is the most frequent sleep disorder in the general population and its worsening in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, represents a new public health problem. It is essential to promote physical and mental health prevention campaigns, aimed at early screening and management of pathologies in the psychosocial sphere, within socioeconomic possibilities.

Are symptoms of insomnia related to respiratory symptoms? Cross-sectional results from 10 European countries and Australia.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the prevalence of different insomnia subtypes among middle-aged adults from Europe and Australia and to explore the cross-sectional relationship between insomnia subtypes, respiratory symptoms and lung function. DESIGN: Cross-sectional population-based, multicentre cohort study. SETTING: 23 centres in 10 European countries and Australia. METHODS: We included 5800 participants in the third follow-up of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey III (ECRHS III) who answered three questions on insomnia symptoms: difficulties falling asleep (initial insomnia), waking up often during the night (middle insomnia) and waking up early in the morning and not being able to fall back asleep (late insomnia). They also answered questions on smoking, general health and chronic diseases and had the following lung function measurements: forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC) and the FEV1/FVC ratio. Changes in lung function since ECRHS I about 20 years earlier were also analysed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of insomnia subtypes and relationship to respiratory symptoms and function. RESULTS: Overall, middle insomnia (31.2%) was the most common subtype followed by late insomnia (14.2%) and initial insomnia (11.2%). The highest reported prevalence of middle insomnia was found in Iceland (37.2%) and the lowest in Australia (22.7%), while the prevalence of initial and late insomnia was highest in Spain (16.0% and 19.7%, respectively) and lowest in Denmark (4.6% and 9.2%, respectively). All subtypes of insomnia were associated with significantly higher reported prevalence of respiratory symptoms. Only isolated initial insomnia was associated with lower FEV1, whereas no association was found between insomnia and low FEV1/FVC ratio or decline in lung function. CONCLUSION: There is considerable geographical variation in the prevalence of insomnia symptoms. Middle insomnia is most common especially in Iceland. Initial and late insomnia are most common in Spain. All insomnia subtypes are associated with respiratory symptoms, and initial insomnia is also associated with lower FEV1.

Trastorno de insomnio. Consideraciones actuales / Insomnia disorder. Current considerations

RESUMEN El insomnio es el trastorno del sueño más frecuente en la población, se acompaña de un nivel significativo de malestar o deterioro de áreas importantes del funcionamiento humano. Es importante realizar un diagnóstico correcto de este desorden con el objetivo de instaurar un tratamiento adecuado que permita mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes que lo padecen. El objetivo de este artículo es ofrecer una revisión actualizada que contribuya al incremento y actualización de la información sobre este tema. Se realizó una revisión en artículos, principalmente de los últimos cinco años y se sistematizan los resultados para de esta forma contribuir a la superación de los profesionales.

ABSTRACT Insomnia is the most frequently sleep disorder in the population. It is linked to a significant discomfort and an impairment of important areas of the human functioning. The correct diagnosis of this disorder is important with the objective of prescribing an adequate treatment for improving the life quality of the patients suffering it. The aim of this article is offering an up-dated review contributing to increase and update the information on this topic. The authors carried out a review of articles published mainly during the last five years, and the results were systematized for contributing to the professionals´ upgrading.

Identifying the best sleep measure to screen clinical insomnia in a psychiatric population.

BACKGROUND: Insomnia symptoms are highly prevalent among patients with psychiatric disorders, and this mandates the need to identify the best self-administered sleep measure to screen for clinical insomnia among them. METHODS: A total of 400 psychiatric outpatients completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Flinders Fatigue Scale, Functional Outcomes of Sleep Questionnaire, and Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale in a cross-sectional study. The sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative predictive values of these six sleep scales were assessed and compared in relation to both ICD-10 and DSM-5 insomnia disorder status established using the interviewer-administered Brief Insomnia Questionnaire. RESULTS: Receiver operator characteristic curves with the area under the curve (AUC) revealed the ISI to be the most accurate measure to discriminate cases and non-cases on both ICD-10 (AUC = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.84-0.92) and DSM-5 (AUC = 0.82, 95% CI = 0.78-0.86) criteria with "good" accuracy. The cut-off scores of ≥14 and ≥ 11 for the ISI provided optimal sensitivity and specificity for the detection of ICD-10 and DSM-5 insomnia, respectively. DISCUSSION: With the new calling from DSM-5 to treat sleep symptoms in the presence of a co-existing mental condition, early detection of psychiatric patients with clinically significantly insomnia using a simple but accurate self-report sleep measure becomes important. Our study suggests that the ISI could be used as a potential screening tool for comorbid insomnia disorder in patients with mental disorders.

Insomnia heterogeneity: Characteristics to consider for data-driven multivariate subtyping.

Meta-analyses and systematic reviews have reported surprisingly few consistent insomnia-characteristics with respect to cognitions, mood, traits, history of life events and family history. One interpretation of this limited consistency is that different subtypes of insomnia exist, each with its own specific multivariate profile of characteristics. Because previously unrecognized subtypes will be differentially represented in individual studies and dilute effect sizes of subtype-dependent characteristics of importance, they are unlikely to be reported consistently in individual studies, let alone in meta-analyses. This review therefore aims to complement meta-analyses by listing previously reported psychometric characteristics of insomnia, irrespective of the degree of consistency over studies. The review clearly indicates that characteristics of insomnia may not be limited to sleep. Reports suggest that at least some individuals with insomnia may deviate from people without sleep complaints with respect to demographics, mental and physical health, childhood trauma, life events, fatigue, sleepiness, hyperarousal, hyperactivity, other sleep disorders, lifetime sleep history, chronotype, depression, anxiety, mood, quality of life, personality, happiness, worry, rumination, self-consciousness, sensitivity, dysfunctional beliefs, self-conscious emotion regulation, coping, nocturnal mentation, wake resting-state mentation, physical activity, food intake, temperature perception and hedonic evaluation. The value of this list of characteristics is that 1) internet has now made it feasible to asses them all in a large sample of people suffering from insomnia, and 2) statistical methods like latent class analysis and community detection can utilize them for a truly bottom-up data-driven search for subtypes. The supplement to this review provides a blueprint of this multivariate approach as implemented in the Sleep registry platform (www.sleepregistry.nl), that allows for bottom-up subtyping and fosters cross-cultural comparison and worldwide collaboration on insomnia subtype finding - and beyond.

Insomnia current diagnosis: an appraisal / Diagnóstico atual de insônia: uma apreciação

Chronic insomnia is the most common sleep disorder in adults andits diagnosis is fundamental for adequate clinical management. The aim of this paper is to present recently published definitions of insomnia according to current international classifications, such as the International Classification of Sleep Disorders - Third Edition and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fifth Edition. For the first time, these classifications are congruent related to thei rdiagnostic criteria; both present insomnia as a distinct disorder and divide it into acute, chronic and other. This emphasizes the necessityof a specific insomnia approach. Furthermore, it is necessary torecognize those insomniacs with physiological hyperarousal, whichmay be identified by objective measures (short total sleep time, forinstance). These patients may have poorer outcome, as they are athigher risk of developing cardiometabolic conditions and neurocognitive impairment. Diagnosis is primarily made on a clinical basis (anamnesis and physical examination), while sleep diaries and questionnaires (such as Insomnia Severity Index) can help evaluate these patients. Objective measures, such as polysomnography, arenot required in most cases, except when suspicion of another sleep disorder arises.

A insônia crônica é o transtorno do sono mais comum em adultos,e seu diagnóstico é fundamental para o manejo clínico adequado.O principal objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar, em relação à insônia,as definições publicadas recentemente segundo as novas classificações internacionais, como a Classificação Internacional de Distúrbios do Sono - Terceira Edição e o Manual Diagnóstico e Estatístico de Transtornos Mentais - Quinta Edição. Pela primeira vez, essas classificações são congruentes a respeito de seus critérios diagnósticos,pois ambas apresentam a insônia como uma doença em si ea dividem em aguda, crônica e outras. Isso enfatiza a necessidade de uma abordagem específica da insônia. Além do mais, é necessário reconhecer os insones com estado fisiológico de hiper alerta que podem ser identificados por medidas objetivas (tempo total de sono curto, por exemplo). Esses pacientes podem ter pior prognóstico, por causa do maior risco de desenvolver condições cardiometabólicas e comprometimento neurocognitivo. O diagnóstico da insônia é feito principalmente com base em dados clínicos (anamnese e exame físico),e o uso de diário de sono e questionários (tais como o Índice de Gravidade de Insônia) pode ajudar na avaliação desses pacientes.Análises objetivas, como aquelas obtidas pela polissonografia, não são rotineiramente necessárias na maioria dos casos, exceto quando há a suspeita de outro distúrbio do sono.

Effectiveness of internet-supported cognitive behavioral and chronobiological interventions and effect moderation by insomnia subtype: study protocol of a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: DSM-V criteria for insomnia disorder are met by 6 to 10% of the adult population. Insomnia has severe consequences for health and society. One of the most common treatments provided by primary caregivers is pharmacological treatment, which is far from optimal and has not been recommended since a 2005 consensus report of the National Institutes of Health. The recommended treatment is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia. Effectiveness, however, is still limited. Only a few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of chronobiological treatments, including the timed application of bright light, physical activity and body warming. Another opportunity for optimization of treatment is based on the idea that the people suffering from insomnia most likely represent a heterogeneous mix of subtypes, with different underlying causes and expected treatment responses. The present study aims to evaluate the possibility for optimizing insomnia treatment along the principles of personalized and stratified medicine. It evaluates the following: 1. The relative effectiveness of internet-supported cognitive behavioral therapy, bright light, physical activity and body warming; 2. Whether the effectiveness of internet-supported cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia can be augmented by simultaneous or prior application of bright light, physical activity and body warming; and 3. Whether the effectiveness of the interventions and their combination are moderated by the insomnia subtype. METHODS/DESIGN: In a repeated measures, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial that included 160 people diagnosed with insomnia disorder, we are evaluating the relative effectiveness of 4 intervention weeks. Primary outcome is subjective sleep efficiency, quantified using a sleep diary. Secondary outcomes include other complaints of sleep and daytime functioning, health-related cost estimates and actigraphic objective sleep estimates. Compliance will be monitored both subjectively and objectively using activity, light and temperature sensors. Insomnia subtypes will be assessed using questionnaires. Mixed effect models will be used to evaluate intervention effects and moderation by insomnia subtype ratings. DISCUSSION: The current study addresses multiple opportunities to optimize and personalize treatment of insomnia disorder. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands National Trial Register NTR4010, 4 June 2013.

Insomnia and sleep misperception.

Sleep misperception is often observed in insomnia individuals (INS). The extent of misperception varies between different types of INS. The following paper comprised sections which will be aimed at studying the sleep EEG and compares it to subjective reports of sleep in individuals suffering from either psychophysiological insomnia or paradoxical insomnia and good sleeper controls. The EEG can be studied without any intervention (thus using the raw data) via either PSG or fine quantitative EEG analyses (power spectral analysis [PSA]), identifying EEG patterns as in the case of cyclic alternating patterns (CAPs) or by decorticating the EEG while scoring the different transient or phasic events (K-Complexes or sleep spindles). One can also act on the on-going EEG by delivering stimuli so to study their impact on cortical measures as in the case of event-related potential studies (ERPs). From the paucity of studies available using these different techniques, a general conclusion can be reached: sleep misperception is not an easy phenomenon to quantify and its clinical value is not well recognized. Still, while none of the techniques or EEG measures defined in the paper is available and/or recommended to diagnose insomnia, ERPs might be the most indicated technique to study hyperarousal and sleep quality in different types of INS. More research shall also be dedicated to EEG patterns and transient phasic events as these EEG scoring techniques can offer a unique insight of sleep misperception.

Defining the borders between Sleep-Related Eating Disorder and Night Eating Syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: Nocturnal eating is a common symptom of two clinical conditions with different pathogenesis and needing different therapeutic approaches: Sleep Related Eating Disorder (SRED) and Night Eating Syndrome (NES). The first is considered a parasomnia while the second is an eating disorder; however, the distinction between SRED and NES is still a controversial matter. The aim of this study was to better define psychological, behavioral, and polysomnographic characteristics of the two syndromes. METHODS: An eating disorders' specialist tested a group of 28 nocturnal eaters diagnosed as affected by SRED by a sleep expert, following the current criteria of the international classification of sleep disorders, to find out if any of them was affected by NES according to the criteria suggested by both sleep and eating disorders specialists during the first international meeting on Night Eating Syndrome (Minneapolis, 2009) and if they had specific psychological or polysomnographic characteristics. RESULTS: Twenty-two subjects were diagnosed to be affected by NES. They scored higher on the physical tension subscale of the Sleep Disturbance Questionnaire (SDQ) and on the mood and sleep subscale of the Night Eating Questionnaire (NEQ), but there were no other significant differences between SRED and NES patients nor for age, Body Mass Index (BMI), or gender distribution. CONCLUSIONS: The overlap between the symptomatology and the polysomnographic characteristics of the two pathologies and the difficulty in making a differential diagnosis between NES and SRED indicate the need for an update of the diagnostic criteria for SRED, as was recently done for NES.

Misdiagnosing normality: Psychiatry's failure to address the problem of false positive diagnoses of mental disorder in a changing professional environment.

BACKGROUND: In psychiatry's transformation from primarily an asylum-based profession to a community-oriented profession, false positive diagnoses that mistakenly classify normal intense reactions to stress as mental disorders became a major challenge to the validity of psychiatric diagnosis. The shift to symptom-based operationalized diagnostic criteria in DSM-III further exacerbated this difficulty because of the contextually based nature of the distinction between normal distress and mental disorder, which often display similar symptoms. The problem has particular urgency because the DSM's symptom-based criteria are often applied in studies and screening instruments outside of the clinical context and by non-mental-health professionals. AIMS: To consider, through selected examples, the degree of concern, systematicity and thoroughness - and the degree of success - with which recent revisions of the DSM have attended to the challenge of avoiding false positive diagnoses. METHOD: Conceptual analysis of selected criteria sets, with a focus on possible counterexamples to the claim that DSM criteria imply disorder. RESULTS: Psychiatry has so far failed to systematically adjust its diagnostic practices to confront the problem of false positives. Flaws in criteria, which can be recognized immediately by lay people, remain unaddressed or are addressed on a hit-or-miss random basis years after the flaw has been introduced, even though the issue is purely conceptual and is not sensitive to any new research information.

Insomniac children maternal sleep and mood in São Paulo and Barcelona / Sono e humor de mães de crianças pequenas com insônia em São Paulo e Barcelona

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate sleep characteristics verifying for the presence of depressive symptoms in mothers of insomniac children living in São Paulo (Brazil) and Barcelona (Spain). METHOD: Forty-six mothers were evaluated, 37 from São Paulo and nine from Barcelona, their ages varying from 19 to 44, and their children; otherwise healthy but with complaints of insomnia, their age varying from three to 33 months. The mothers' sleep quality was rated by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). RESULTS: 91.30 percent of mothers reported poor sleep by PSQI standards. Regarding signs and symptoms of depression, 69.56 percent of all mothers in this sample showed them. Direct correlation between São Paulo mothers PSQI and BDI was found and also between the child's age and BDI. CONCLUSION: The mothers' poor sleep was related to mood changes with symptoms of depression presenting similar results in both cities.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a presença de sintomas depressivos em mães de crianças com insônia em São Paulo e Barcelona. MÉTODO: Quarenta e seis mães foram avaliadas, 37 de São Paulo e nove de Barcelona, suas idades variaram de 19 a 44 anos, e suas crianças, saudáveis, mas com queixa de insônia tinham idades de três a 33 meses. A mãe foi avaliada pelo Índice de Qualidade de Sono de Pittsburgh (PSQI) e pelo Índice de Depressão de Beck (IDB). RESULTADOS: 91,30 por cento das mães relataram sono ruim pelo padrão do PSQI. Quanto aos sinais e sintomas de depressão, 69,56 por cento das mães da amostra total relatavam. Nas mães de São Paulo foi constatada correlação direta entre o PSQI e o IDB, bem como a idade da criança e o IBD. CONCLUSÃO: O sono ruim das mães se correlacionou com sinais e sintomas depressivos e os resultados foram semelhantes nas duas cidades.

Empirical validation of the Insomnia Severity Index in cancer patients.

Despite the elevated prevalence of insomnia in cancer patients, there is a lack of brief validated instruments for the evaluation of this particular problem in this population. The goal of this study is to empirically validate the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) and to evaluate its ability to screen insomnia in 1670 cancer patients. The results support the internal consistency and temporal stability of the ISI. Its two-component factor structure is clear and stable between different cancer diagnoses. The construct validity of that instrument is also supported by correlations obtained with various measures of sleep and one measure of quality of life. The ISI is also sensitive to therapeutic changes. A clinical cut-off score of 8 on the ISI is associated with optimal sensitivity and specificity for the detection of sleep difficulties. In conclusion, the ISI appears to be an excellent evaluation and screening tool in the context of cancer.

Tratamiento no farmacológico del insomnio. 3o parte / Non pharmacological treatment of insommia. 3o parte

Los trastornos del sueño son una patología frecuente. Cerca del 35 por ciento de los colombianos presentara en cualquier momento de su vida una alteración del sueño. El insomnio es la queja principal en adultos y ancianos. La prevalencia del insomnio en mujeres es del 40 por ciento, se presenta en 30 por ciento de los hombres y en 50 por ciento de personas mayores de 65 años. Los factores asociados con mayor prevalencia son género femenino, presencia de trastornos mentales, condiciones médicas generales, abuso de sustancias y edad avanzada. Una adecuada intervención exige el diagnóstico cuidadoso y el tratamiento según la causa. Existe relación directa entre insomnio y alteraciones médicas, neurológicas, neumológicas y psiquiátricas. El omnólogo descarta estas patologías cuando examina un paciente mediante la anamnesis, heteroanamnesis, examen físico, agenda de sueño, exámenes somáticos y psicológicos y en ocasiones la polisomnografía. Para su manejo se evalúan factores predisponentes, precipitantes y perpetuadores que afectan el curso del insomnio. El tratamiento actual considera un abordaje integral y edológico. Se usa higiene del sueño, hipnóticos, CPAP-BiPAP-AutoCPAP, luminoterapia, cronoterapia y en ocasiones la melatonina. En este artículo se presenta el manejo no psicofarmacológico del insomnio crónico. Se describen las principales técnicas comportamentales y su aplicación en el tratamiento de estos pacientes

Concepto y clasificación del insomnio / Concept and classification of insomnia

El insomnio es la alteración más frecuente del sueño y sus causas son de origen diverso. El criterio para identificar a una persona como insomne es el hecho de estar durmiendo poco y mal, y "quejarse" de ello. La cantidad de sueño necesaria varía en cada persona. El sexo y la edad son factores importantes que influyen en el insomnio. También participan los hábitos, la alimentación, ejercicio físico, consumo de sustancias (alcohol, café, tabaco, refrescos de cola) o el uso de pastillas para dormir o de otros medicamentos de prescripción médica o preparados de uso libre. Frecuentemente, el insomnio se puede deber a otros trastornos del sueño, como el síndrome de movimientos periódicos de los miembros y a las alteraciones de la ciclicidad del sueño (trastornos del ritmo). También puede estar asociado a otros trastornos médicos (alteraciones hormonales, dolor, problemas emocionales, afectivos o alteraciones de la personalidad), o deberse a cuadros que ponen en riesgo la salud y la vida del sujeto, como la roncopatía y la apnea del sueño

Evaluación del paciente con insomnio

El insomnio es una causa muy fecuente de alteración de la calidad de vida, que afecta hasta una tercera parte de las personas adultas y que, por lo general, se deba a una enfermedad tratable.

Insomnio: tratamiento farmacológico / Imsomnia: pharmacological treatment

Se define el insomnio como la incapacidad para conciliar el sueño o permanecer dormido; dependiendo del momento en el cual se presenta, se puede dividir en inicial, cuando la dificultad ocurre al tratar de conciliar el sueño; intermedio, cuando hay incapacidad para volver a conciliar el sueño luego de despertarse; y finalmente, el insomnio puede ser terminal cuando el despertar es muy temprano y el sujeto ya no puede volver a dormir. El insomnio representa uno de los problemas más comunes en la práctica clínica, y se calcula que cerca del 30 por ciento de pacientes que acuden a consulta refieren insomnio. La prevalencia del insomnio se eleva notoriamente en los gerontes. El insomnio puede ser la manifestación de una enfermedad subyacente, de manera que en algunos pacientes es necesio hacer una evaluación más extensa y cuidadosa. El manejo del insomnio incluye el uso racional de fármacos, entre los cuales las benzodiazepinas son las drogas más empleadas al momento actual.