Safely gaining experience in death and dying: Simulation in palliative care and end-of-life education.

BACKGROUND: Training in palliative and end-of-life (EOL) care provision represents a critical topic in health professional curricula for ensuring a workforce prepared to provide safe and person-center care at the end of one's life. This manuscript describes the incorporation of a simulation-based learning experience (SBLE) and the evolution of a professional elective course for student pharmacists related to palliative and EOL care. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY: A SBLE was incorporated into a long-standing professional pharmacy elective course in palliative and EOL care. The decision to incorporate and utilize SBLE to introduce topics of deprescribing, communication, prioritization of quality of life, and establishing goals of care was utilized in recognition of a need to establish a psychologically safer environment to allow students to explore these topics prior to the advanced pharmacy practice experiences. DISCUSSION: Incorporation of SBLE in this professional elective course resulted in a favorable effect on course enrollment. Observations from structured debriefing and anecdotal student feedback suggest that students had trouble tailoring care plans to the circumstances, particularly in focusing on de-escalating medication treatments, emphasizing the need for training in the care for this patient population which incorporate considerations for goals of care. Lessons related to the influence of environmental distractions, expressions of discomfort conveyed by body language, and challenges in prioritizing and focusing on tailoring care plans given evolving information at hand were identified. IMPLICATIONS: We describe the effective implementation and utilization of SBLE in a professional elective focused on palliative and EOL care for student pharmacists. Future directions include research initiatives designed to evaluate the impact of simulation on key competencies and areas developed through participation in such exercises. Systematic evaluation of outcomes and competencies related to team dynamics, sympathetic communication, professional identity formation and resiliency and preparation for dealing with death and dying in experiential learning are planned.

Pharmacists in oncology: Evidence still needed, but teaching comes first.

INTRODUCTION: The pharmacy profession faces a lack of evidence pertaining to pharmaceutical care in oncology, both in terms of its effectiveness and its integration into clinical practice. While Europe-based pharmacists are active in many therapeutic areas, their role in cancer care is less defined. Conversely, the complexity of oncology, increasing cancer cases, and evolving therapies highlight the potential for pharmacists in this field. Their limited involvement in Europe may be attributed to inadequate undergraduate training and research. PERSPECTIVE: Collaborative care shows potential in oncology, but still needs more trial evidence. Here, we can learn from pharmaceutical care in cardiology, where more research has been conducted. The limited role of pharmacists in oncology may be due to a lack of focus on oncology research and insufficient education. IMPLICATIONS: Addressing the teaching gap requires improving oncology education in pharmacy programs, at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Current postgraduate courses and US PharmD programs could serve as models. Equipping pharmacy students with fundamental oncology knowledge is a vital first step, for further meaningful research and practice. Formal education could bridge the gap between evidence and practice in these fields.

Educational needs of oncology pharmacists: A survey by the International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners.

BACKGROUND: The International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners (ISOPP) is committed to providing educational resources to members for their continuous learning and professional development. This survey was conducted to explore the educational needs of International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners members for the purpose of developing resources to support future learning relevant to the diverse global pharmacy practitioner membership of our society. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners membership was conducted between 10 December 2018 and 15 January 2019. The survey contained 17 questions and consisted of four sections: (1) respondents' demographics, (2) common challenges/barriers faced by members in accessing oncology pharmacy education, (3) areas within oncology pharmacy where members need education and (4) preferred methods of education delivery. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize survey results. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 62 out of 363 International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners members (17% response rate). Respondents were from 19 different countries, representing all the habitable continents. Most respondents were practicing in North America (21%), Oceania (21%) and Asia (16%). The majority of respondents worked in inpatient cancer units (60%), ambulatory tertiary cancer centres (31%) and academia (26%). Reported barriers to accessing education relevant to oncology pharmacy practice included lack of financial support (44%), time spent travelling to attend educational activities (39%), limited learning opportunities in their country of practice (34%) and limited growth of the oncology pharmacy discipline in their country of practice (32%). The content areas of greatest demand included pharmacotherapy of various cancers followed by oncology pharmacy research, International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners oncology pharmacy practice standards, supportive care and medication safety. Among educational activities offered by International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners, respondents valued annual International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners symposia and Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice the most. Most respondents (87%) indicated webinars as an effective educational tool. CONCLUSION: Among an international oncology pharmacist cohort, we identified practice areas prioritized by pharmacists for continuing and professional development. Time and cost were common barriers to education, both in developing and developed countries. These survey findings may help to guide future education initiatives of International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners and other providers of pharmacist oncology education.

[Global Standards for Pharmaceutical Education].

The environment surrounding clinical pharmacy practices has changed greatly in the past thirty-some years, basically since the end of the 1980s. During this period, the separation ratio between pharmacists' dispensing and prescribing functions has increased, from 12% to 74%. The three big events in this timeline include the beginning of pharmaceutical care for inpatients by hospital pharmacists in 1988; the transition of pharmacy schools to a six-year educational program in 2006; and the revision of Pharmaceutical Affairs Law, as well as its name change, in 2014. In concert with these events, the central role of the pharmacist has changed from being dispensing-centric to an active participation in patient treatment via medication as a member of the medical care team. As a key participant in these changes, the author helped to improve the operations of hospital pharmacists, strengthened their role with advanced information and communication technology (ICT) support, and established a baseline for clinical pharmacy research and education. Accordingly, in this paper, the history of this development will be reviewed, and the future of a global standard for pharmaceutical education will be discussed.

Palliative and end of life care content within common pharmacy textbooks.

INTRODUCTION: This study compared the end-of-life care (EOLC) content in pharmacy-related textbooks to textbooks evaluated in a comparable 2003 study. METHODS: Six common pharmacy-related textbooks were reviewed for content relating to EOLC. Five of the textbooks were the newest editions of the same texts reviewed in a similar 2003 study, and one focused primarily on clinical ethics, a topic that was underrepresented in the previous study. The six texts were searched for a list of 33 keywords or phrases pertaining to EOLC. Entries containing any of these 33 keywords were assigned a domain and scored using a simple scoring system of one if minimally helpful content was present or two if helpful content was present. The total number of entries and their average scores were compared to the results of the previous study. RESULTS: The average number of entries per textbook was 154, which represents an increase from the 110.1 average number of entries in the 2003 study. However, one of the textbooks had a total of 470 entries alone. Of a total number of 78 possible domains, 40 had either zero or one entries. The average ratings for each book ranged from 0.5 to 1.6, whereas they ranged from 0.9 to 1.6 in 2003. Four of six books in this study had average rating of less than 0.9. CONCLUSION: Although certain texts have made strides to include more EOLC content, overall, EOLC content in pharmacy textbooks may still be improved.

Simulated patient cases using DecisionSim™ improves student performance and satisfaction in pharmacotherapeutics education.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Pharmacy education is continuously evolving and incorporation of technology is more prevalent. Computer-based patient cases are being utilised to illustrate complex concepts and develop clinical decision-making skills by enabling deliberate practice and continued feedback to scaffold student learning. Simulations are received positively by students but there is limited information on the benefit to student performance. The study aim was to determine the benefits of computer-based cases for oncology therapeutics in terms of student satisfaction and performance. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING: Computer based oncology cases were designed using DecisionSim™ technology and introduced to final year pharmacy students. Student satisfaction was measured using a questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale (1 strongly agree to 5 strongly disagree), and an option for open-ended comments. Performance was measured using results of assessment items in the oncology course compared to a similar course (psychiatric/neurology). FINDINGS: Students found the simulated oncology cases engaged them in learning (median 1.5), had a role in therapeutics education (median 1), and developed decision making skills (median 1). Thematic analysis of open comments suggested it was most beneficial as a self-directed study tool. The students performed significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the oncology end of semester exam (78.6 ±â€¯8.6) compared to psychiatric/neurology (70.7 ±â€¯9.6). SUMMARY: A computer-based simulation for oncology pharmacotherapeutics can engage students and develop decision making skills. DecisionSim™ enhanced both student satisfaction and performance in management of oncology cases, and is a beneficial educational tool for teaching complex therapeutic topics to pharmacy students.

The Effect of Prerequisite Pharmacodynamics Course Timing on Student Performance in Pharmacotherapy Courses.

Objective. To evaluate the impact that decreasing the time from 12 to three months between prerequisite pharmacodynamics courses and their corresponding pharmacotherapy courses had on overall student performance in the pharmacotherapy courses measured by course examination scores. Methods. Two cohorts of second-professional year (P2) and third professional year (P3) classes, respectively, following different curriculum plans, simultaneously took two pharmacotherapy courses (infectious disease and neoplastic disease). Admission data (age, gender, prior bachelor's degree status, grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) score, and interview score) were collected to establish baseline characteristics between the two cohorts. Examination scores in the corresponding prerequisite pharmacodynamics and pharmacotherapy courses were also collected. The variable was the difference in time each cohort experienced between the prerequisite pharmacodynamics courses and the subsequent pharmacotherapy courses. Results. No difference was found in baseline admission characteristics between the two cohorts, except for increased average age, which favored the P2 cohort. In the infectious disease pharmacotherapy course, the P3 cohort performed better than the P2 cohort as measured by average examination scores. In the neoplastic disease pharmacotherapy course, the P3 cohort also achieved significant higher average examination scores than the P2 cohort. The P3 cohort achieved higher overall scores than the P2 cohort in both courses despite a longer interval between the applicable pharmacodynamic and pharmacotherapy courses (12 months vs 3 months, respectively). Conclusion. Shortening the time interval from 12 months to three months between prerequisite and requisite courses did not result in improved, or even equivalent, academic performance relative to the P2 cohort that had only a 3-month interval between courses. Placing like content closer together, as the only intervention, is not enough to ensure improved student performance measured by examination scores in corresponding requisite courses.

Using Simulation to Improve First-Year Pharmacy Students' Ability to Identify Medication Errors Involving the Top 100 Prescription Medications.

Objective. To evaluate first-year pharmacy students' ability to identify medication errors involving the top 100 prescription medications. Design. In the first quarter of a 3-quarter pharmacy self-care course, a didactic lecture on the most common prescribing and dispensing prescription errors was presented to first-year pharmacy students (P1) in preparation for a prescription review simulation done individually and as a group. In the following quarter, they were given a formal prescription review workshop before a second simulation involving individual and group review of a different set of prescriptions. Students were evaluated based on the number of correctly checked prescriptions and a self-assessment of their confidence in reviewing prescriptions. Assessment. All 63 P1 students completed the prescription review simulations. The individual scores did not significantly change, but group scores improved from 79 (16.2%) in the fall quarter to 98.6 (4.7%) in the winter quarter. Students perceived improvement of their prescription checking skills, specifically in their ability to fill a prescription on their own, identify prescribing and dispensing errors, and perform pharmaceutical calculations. Conclusion. A prescription review module consisting of a didactic lecture, workshop and simulation-based methods to teach prescription analysis was successful at improving first year pharmacy students' knowledge, confidence, and application of these skills.

Understanding vs. competency: the case of accuracy checking dispensed medicines in pharmacy.

Ensuring the competence of healthcare professionals' is core to undergraduate and post-graduate education. Undergraduate pharmacy students and pre-registration graduates are required to demonstrate competence at dispensing and accuracy checking medicines. However, competence differs from understanding. This study determined the competence and understanding of undergraduate students and pharmacists at accuracy checking dispensed medicines. Third year undergraduate pharmacy students and first year post-graduate diploma pharmacists participated in the study, which involved an accuracy checking task and concept mapping exercise. Participants accuracy checked eight medicines which contained 13 dispensing errors and then constructed a concept map illustrating their understanding of the accuracy checking process. The error detection rates and types of dispensing errors detected by undergraduates and pharmacists were compared using Mann-Whitney and chi-square, respectively. Statistical significance was p ≤ 0.05. Concept maps were qualitatively analysed to identify structural typologies. Forty-one undergraduates and 78 pharmacists participated in the study. Pharmacists detected significantly more dispensing errors (85%) compared to the undergraduates (77%, p ≤ 0.001). Only one undergraduate and seven pharmacists detected all dispensing errors. The majority of concept maps were chains (undergraduates = 46%, n = 19; pharmacists = 45%, n = 35) and spokes (undergraduates = 54%, n = 22; pharmacists = 54%, n = 42) indicating surface learning. One pharmacist, who detected all dispensing errors in the accuracy checking exercise, created a networked map characteristic of deep learning. Undergraduate students and pharmacists demonstrated a degree of operational competence at detecting dispensing errors without fully understanding the accuracy checking process. Accuracy checking training should be improved at undergraduate and post-graduate level so that pharmacists are equipped with the knowledge and understanding to accurately check medicines and detect dispensing errors, thereby safeguarding patient safety.

O farmacêutico na saúde coletiva: sua identidade, demandas do serviço e o papel do Internato Rural na sua formação

As Diretrizes Curriculares de 2002 estabeleceram um novo currículo para o ensino farmacêutico na tentativa de aproximar a formação do profissional das exigências do novo modelo de atenção instituído com o SUS. Uma alternativa adotada por algumas Faculdades de Farmácia no país tem sido inserir em seus currículos a disciplina de Internato Rural (IR). No presente trabalho objetivou-se analisar a contribuição do IR do curso de Farmácia da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais na formação do farmacêutico para atuação no SUS. O estudo foi desenvolvido sob três perspectivas: o resgate histórico da profissão, a contribuição do IR na formação acadêmica, e a percepção dos profissionais farmacêuticos dos elementos necessários para a sua formação no contexto do serviço de saúde. Para o resgate histórico foi realizado uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a construção da identidade profissional do farmacêutico e sua inserção no SUS. O segundo momento, da pesquisa, foi realizado com os alunos matriculados no IR e com os idealizadores/coordenadores da disciplina. No último. momento trabalhou-se com todos os gerentes das farmácias distritais do município de Belo. Horizonte. Para a coleta das informações utilizou-se a técnica do grupo focal e a entrevista. semi-estruturada. Os discursos foram analisados na perspectiva da análise de conteúdo e os. resultados apontaram para um baixo conhecimento dos alunos sobre SUS e sobre a assistência. farmacêutica, Entretanto, o IR foi considerado uma ponte de aprendizagem entre a teoria e a prática. A realidade da assistência farmacêutica apontada pelos alunos foi a mesma relatada pelos profissionais farmacêuticos. A falta do profissional e a fragmentação da atividade da assistência ainda caracterizam o cenário do Sistema. Neste sentido, o profissional farmacêutico passa por uma fase de ruptura do paradigma tecnicista para a (re)construção de sua identidade como profissional da saúde.

O farmacêutico na saúde coletiva: sua identidade, demandas do serviço e o papel do Internato Rural na sua formação / The pharmacist in public health: their identity, and the role of the service demands of their training in Rural Internship

As Diretrizes Curriculares de 2002 estabeleceram um novo currículo para o ensino farmacêutico na tentativa de aproximar a formação do profissional das exigências do novo modelo de atenção instituído com o SUS. Uma alternativa adotada por algumas Faculdades de Farmácia no país tem sido inserir em seus currículos a disciplina de Internato Rural (IR). No presente trabalho objetivou-se analisar a contribuição do IR do curso de Farmácia da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais na formação do farmacêutico para atuação no SUS. O estudo foi desenvolvido sob três perspectivas: o resgate histórico da profissão, a contribuição do IR na formação acadêmica, e a percepção dos profissionais farmacêuticos dos elementos necessários para a sua formação no contexto do serviço de saúde. Para o resgate histórico foi realizado uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a construção da identidade profissional do farmacêutico e sua inserção no SUS. O segundo momento, da pesquisa, foi realizado com os alunos matriculados no IR e com os idealizadores/coordenadores da disciplina. No último. momento trabalhou-se com todos os gerentes das farmácias distritais do município de Belo. Horizonte. Para a coleta das informações utilizou-se a técnica do grupo focal e a entrevista. semi-estruturada. Os discursos foram analisados na perspectiva da análise de conteúdo e os. resultados apontaram para um baixo conhecimento dos alunos sobre SUS e sobre a assistência. farmacêutica, Entretanto, o IR foi considerado uma ponte de aprendizagem entre a teoria e a prática. A realidade da assistência farmacêutica apontada pelos alunos foi a mesma relatada pelos profissionais farmacêuticos. A falta do profissional e a fragmentação da atividade da assistência ainda caracterizam o cenário do Sistema. Neste sentido, o profissional farmacêutico passa por uma fase de ruptura do paradigma tecnicista para a (re)construção de sua identidade como profissional da saúde.

Análise do processo de implementação das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais do curso de graduação em Farmácia no Estado do Rio de Janeiro: um estudo exploratório / Analysis on the process of implementation of the National Curricula Guidelines for Pharmacy graduate courses in the State of Rio de Janeiro: an exploratory study

O estabelecimento das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais do Curso de Graduação em Farmácia (DCNF) ocasionou muitas discussões acerca da formação dos farmacêuticos, visto que demandam mudanças significativas nessa formação. Essas mudanças envolvem, entre outros aspectos, o componente humanístico e crítico da profissão, o que significa repensar a formação do farmacêutico e até mesmo sua própria identidade como profissional, que apresenta um perfil eminentemente técnico. Este trabalho tem por foco o processo de implementação das DCNF no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Buscou-se verificar como esta vem se desenvolvendo e identificar alguns dos embates, entraves e avanços nesse processo. Para a análise, foram realizadas entrevistas semi- estruturadas com os coordenadores de um conjunto de cursos selecionados, além do exame dos currículos e projetos pedagógicos dos mesmos, com base nas DCNF. Os resultados demonstram que a construção das novas propostas de formação dos cursos, ocorreu a partir do currículo anterior. Houve uma baixa participação dos alunos e docentes no processo e também ocorreram conflitos entre os departamentos, além da inadequação da estrutura universitária. A diretriz da formação voltada para atenção à saúde com ênfase no SUS, estimulou a abertura para discussões acerca do Sistema de Saúde e conduziu a inserção dos alunos no mesmo, também causou questionamentos e preocupação, por se considerar essa formação restritiva em relação ao mercado de trabalho. A implementação das propostas enfrentou dificuldades que envolveram a carga horária docente, dificuldade de inserção dos alunos em estágio em algumas áreas de atuação e a falta de investimentos no setor público, tanto de infra-estrutura, como de pessoal, além das dificuldades inerentes ao processo de transição entre os currículos...

The establishment of the National Curricula Guidelines for PharmacyGraduate Courses (DCNF) arose many discussions on the formation of pharmacists, due to the changes caused in this formation. These changes involved, besides other aspects, the humanistic and critical part of this profession, which means to re-thinkthe pharmacist formation and even his own identity as professional, with a basically technical profile. This work focuses on the process of implementation of the DCNF inthe State of Rio de Janeiro. It aimed to verify how it is being developed and to identify some brunts, impediments and developments in this process. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with coordinators of selected courses, and curricula and pedagogical projects were analyzed, based on the DCNF. Results show that the construction of new courses was based on the previous curriculum. Few students and teachers took part in the process, and also there were conflicts among departments, besides inadequate university structure. Formation guidelines for healthcare focusing on the Unified Health System (SUS) stimulated discussions on the health system and integration of students, but also arose questions and worry, since this formation was considered restrictive for the work market. The implementation ofproposals faced difficulties concerning teaching working hours, integration ofstudents into some training areas and the lack of investments in the public sector, for infrastructure and personnel, besides difficulties of transition between curricula. No course had systematic initiatives for teacher development, and the distinct teachinglearningsceneries (and partnerships with health services) still are very incipient. Thecoordinators pointed some challenges to be tackled so as to change the pharmacist’s profile: to sever the technicist concept of formation; to integrate the pharmacist in health multi-professional teamS...

Ethical, scientific, and educational concerns with unproven medications.

Quackery (promotion of products that do not work or have not been proven to work) was once a commonly used term within the pharmacy and medical communities. However, an increasingly anti-scientific national climate culminated in passage of the 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, which granted unprecedented legitimacy to "dietary supplements" that had not been scientifically proven to be effective and/or safe. In part, this was facilitated when professional pharmacy magazines and journals published advertisements and articles promoting these unproven medications. Gradually, pharmacy codes of ethics eliminated references to quackery, and some pharmacy organizations seemed to accept the unproven medications they once exhorted the pharmacist not to sell. The profession's shift in attitude toward unproven medications occurred as the medical community at large began to realize the value of evidence-based medicine. Academicians must resist pressure to present unproven therapies as realistic alternatives for medications with scientific proof of safety and efficacy. They must stress the value of evidence-based medicine and urge students and pharmacists to recommend only those medications with evidence-based proof of safety and efficacy.

End-of-life care education in United States pharmacy schools.

Hospice and palliative care have undergone dramatic changes in the past 30 years. Educational initiatives and certification programs for physicians (American Board of Hospice and Palliative Medicine) and nurses (National Board for Certification of Hospice and Palliative Nurses) have further delineated this area of practice as distinct from geriatrics, neurology, anesthesiology, or oncology. As other professions assess their own practices of hospice and end-of-life (EOL) care education in their respective schools and colleges, the pharmacy profession must also ensure that its future graduates are prepared to adequately participate in this type of care. This was a descriptive study in which all accredited schools and colleges of pharmacy in the US were queried regarding their level of curricular commitment to EOL care. Eighty-three questionnaires were mailed, and 60 schools responded (72 percent). Four primary informational items regarding EOL and palliative care education were targeted, including availability of didactic teaching, specialization of pharmacy faculty, availability and type of clerkships, and method of instruction. Sixty-two percent of respondents indicated EOL care education was provided didactically (3.89 +/- 1.91 lecture hours per year). Fifty-eight percent of respondents indicated that EOL care experiential clerkships were available (4.97 +/- 1.25 weeks in duration). These data indicate that over half of US pharmacy students receive some exposure to EOL care education.

Assessment of student pharmacists' knowledge concerning folic acid and prevention of birth defects demonstrates a need for further education.

Adequate periconceptional consumption of folic acid can prevent neural tube birth defects, and all women capable of becoming pregnant are recommended to consume 400 microg/d. Most women, however, are unaware of this recommendation and do not consume adequate amounts of folic acid. It is important, therefore, that healthcare professionals, such as pharmacists, be capable of educating women regarding folic acid. The aim of this study was to assess knowledge regarding prevention of birth defects by folic acid among student (future) pharmacists in the final year of a professional degree program. Over a 3-y period (1998-2000), students (n = 98) enrolled in a PharmD program completed a survey consisting of five multiple-choice questions concerning folic acid and birth defects. Almost all students (93.9%) correctly identified folic acid as preventing birth defects. Of these students, many also knew that supplementation should begin before pregnancy (73.9%). Fewer, however, were able to correctly identify either the recommended level of intake (55.4%) or good sources of folic acid (57.6-65.2%). These results show that although student (future) pharmacists are aware of folic acid's ability to prevent birth defects, many lack the specific knowledge needed to effectively counsel women in future clinical practice.

Pharmacist recognition of potential drug interactions.

The ability of pharmacists to identify potential drug interactions was studied. Simulated medication profiles were created from a list of 16 drugs. Staff pharmacists and soon-to-graduate student pharmacists at a Veterans Affairs medical center each received a set of eight 2-drug profiles, four 4-drug profiles, two 8-drug profiles, and one 16-drug profile. Each set of profiles contained a number of pairs of drugs rated by the Drug Therapy Screening System as producing an interaction of moderate or major importance. The subjects were given one hour to screen the profile for the potentially interacting pairs. The subjects detected only 66% of the interactions in the 2-drug profiles, 34% of the interactions in the 4-drug profiles, 20% of the interactions in the 8-drug profiles, and 17% of the interactions in the 16-drug profile. None of the subjects detected all interactions in the 8- or 16-drug profiles. Both true-positive and false-positive rates of identification decreased significantly as the number of drugs listed on the profile increased. This primarily reflected a reduced tendency to report the presence of drug interactions, but there was additional evidence that the accuracy of identification also declined. The number of years of pharmacy training was the only demographic characteristic highly correlated with accuracy. More years of pharmacy education seemed to improve the ability to detect drug interactions. However, none of the pharmacists or students was able to detect all potentially interacting pairs in a profile containing 8 or 16 drugs. Computerized drug interaction profiles should be used by pharmacists to ensure recognition of all potential drug interactions.