Disparities in Hypoxemia Detection by Pulse Oximetry Across Self-Identified Racial Groups and Associations With Clinical Outcomes.

OBJECTIVES: To assess disparities in hypoxemia detection by pulse oximetry across self-identified racial groups and associations with clinical outcomes. DESIGN: Observational cohort study from May 5, 2018, to December 31, 2020. SETTING: Three academic medical centers in the United States. PATIENTS: Adults greater than or equal to 18 years who self-identified as White, Black, Asian, or American Indian admitted to the ICU or undergoing surgery during inpatient hospitalization with simultaneous measurements of pulse oximetry-estimated oxygen saturation and arterial blood gas-derived oxygen saturation. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Multivariable models were employed to assess the relationships between race, occult hypoxemia (i.e., arterial blood gas-derived oxygen saturation < 88% despite pulse oximetry-estimated oxygen saturation ≥ 92%), and clinical outcomes of hospital mortality and hospital-free days. One-hundred twenty-eight-thousand two-hundred eighty-five paired pulse oximetry-estimated oxygen saturation-arterial blood gas-derived oxygen saturation measurements were included from 26,603 patients. Pulse oximetry-estimated oxygen saturation on average overestimated arterial blood gas-derived oxygen saturation by 1.57% (1.54-1.61%). Black, Asian, and American Indian patients were more likely to experience occult hypoxemia during hospitalization (estimated probability 6.2% [5.1-7.6%], 6.6% [4.9-8.8%], and 6.6% [4.4-10.0%], respectively) compared with White patients (3.6% [3.4-3.8%]). Black patients had increased odds of occult hypoxemia compared with White patients after adjustment (odds ratio, 1.65; 1.28-2.14; p < 0.001). Differences in occult hypoxemia between Asian and American Indian patients compared with White patients were not significant after adjustment (odds ratio, 1.53; 0.95-2.47; p = 0.077 and odds ratio, 1.31; 0.80-2.16; p = 0.288, respectively). Occult hypoxemia was associated with increased odds of mortality in surgical (odds ratio, 2.96; 1.20-7.28; p = 0.019) and ICU patients (1.36; 1.03-1.80; p = 0.033). Occult hypoxemia was associated with fewer hospital-free days in surgical (-2.5 d [-3.9 to -1.2 d]; p < 0.001) but not ICU patients (0.4 d [-0.7 to 1.4 d]; p = 0.500). CONCLUSIONS: Occult hypoxemia is more common in Black patients compared with White patients and is associated with increased mortality, suggesting potentially important outcome implications for undetected hypoxemia. It is imperative to validate pulse oximetry with expanded racial inclusion.

Global expression profiling and pathway analysis in two different population groups in relation to high altitude.

High altitude (HA) is associated with number of stresses. Response of these stresses may vary in different populations depending upon altitude, duration of residency, ancestry, geographical variation, lifestyle, and ethnicities. For understanding population variability in transcriptome, array-based global gene expression profiling was performed on extracted RNA of male volunteers of two different lowland population groups, i.e., Indians and Kyrgyz, at baseline and day 7 of HA exposure (3200 m). A total of 97 genes were differentially expressed at basal in Kyrgyz as compared to Indians (82 downregulated and 15 upregulated), and 196 were differentially expressed on day 7 of HA (118 downregulated and 78 upregulated). Ingenuity Pathway Analysis and gene ontology highlighted eIF2 signaling with most significant negative activation z score at basal in Kyrgyz compared to Indians with downregulation of various L- and S-ribosomal proteins indicating marked translational repression. On day 7, cAMP-mediated signaling is most enriched with positive activation z score in Kyrgyz compared to Indians. Plasma cAMP levels were higher in Kyrgyz on day 7 compared to Indians. Extracellular adenosine levels were elevated in both the groups upon HA, but higher in Kyrgyz compared to Indians. Valedictory qRT-PCR showed upregulation of ADORA2B and CD73 along with downregulation of ENTs in Kyrgyz compared to Indians indicating elevated levels of extracellular nucleotides mainly adenosine and activation of extracellular cAMP-adenosine pathway which as per literature triggers endogenous protective mechanisms under stress conditions like hypoxia. Thus, transcriptome changes at HA are population-specific, and it may be necessary to take care while interposing similar results in different populations.

Pulmonary circulation and gas exchange at exercise in Sherpas at high altitude.

Tibetans have been reported to present with a unique phenotypic adaptation to high altitude characterized by higher resting ventilation and arterial oxygen saturation, no excessive polycythemia, and lower pulmonary arterial pressures (Ppa) compared with other high-altitude populations. How this affects exercise capacity is not exactly known. We measured aerobic exercise capacity during an incremental cardiopulmonary exercise test, lung diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DL(CO)) and nitric oxide (DL(NO)) at rest, and mean Ppa (mPpa) and cardiac output by echocardiography at rest and at exercise in 13 Sherpas and in 13 acclimatized lowlander controls at the altitude of 5,050 m in Nepal. In Sherpas vs. lowlanders, arterial oxygen saturation was 86 ± 1 vs. 83 ± 2% (mean ± SE; P = nonsignificant), mPpa at rest 19 ± 1 vs. 23 ± 1 mmHg (P < 0.05), DL(CO) corrected for hemoglobin 61 ± 4 vs. 37 ± 2 ml · min(-1) · mmHg(-1) (P < 0.001), DL(NO) 226 ± 18 vs. 153 ± 9 ml · min(-1) · mmHg(-1) (P < 0.001), maximum oxygen uptake 32 ± 3 vs. 28 ± 1 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1) (P = nonsignificant), and ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide at anaerobic threshold 40 ± 2 vs. 48 ± 2 (P < 0.001). Maximum oxygen uptake was correlated directly to DL(CO) and inversely to the slope of mPpa-cardiac index relationships in both Sherpas and acclimatized lowlanders. We conclude that Sherpas compared with acclimatized lowlanders have an unremarkable aerobic exercise capacity, but with less pronounced pulmonary hypertension, lower ventilatory responses, and higher lung diffusing capacity.

Estudio clínico comparativo de tumores del cuerpo carotideo / Comparative clinic study of tumors from carotid body

Paralelamente a la hiperplasia del cuerpo carotídeo (CC), se observa un aumento de la frecuencia de los tumores de este órgano en la altura. En el presente estudio comparativo de tumores del cuerpo carotídeo (TCC) de La Paz-Bolivia (3600 metros de altura) y de Bruselas-Bélgica (nivel del mar) esta frecuencia es 20 veces mayor en autóctonos de altura que en pacientes originarios de regiones situadas a nivel del mar. El perfil de los pacientes portadores de TCC es diferente en la altura o a nivel del mar. Los TCC de altura son generalmente unilaterales, se presentan en individuos de mediana edad (51.1 +/- 11 años) con una preponderancia femenina (89 por ciento), son excepcionalmente malignos, se asocian raramente a otros paragangliomas y la herencia no parece jugar ningún rol en su patogenia. Entre los pacientes de nivel del mar se presentan dos situaciones: existe un primer grupo parecido al de los TCC de altura que afecta a pacientes de mediana edad (media 50 años) sin antecedentes hereditarios conocidos por este tipo de lesión ni para otros paragangliomas; el segundo grupo está formado por individuos más jóvenes (media 29.4 años) donde los TCC se desarrollan en un contexto hereditario de tumor neuroendocrino. La frecuencia de TCC malignos es más alta a nivel del mar que en la altura y es independiente del caracter hereditario de las lesiones.

Las arterias pulmonares distales en los habitantes de las alturas / The pulmonary distal arteries at high altitude population

El estudio de las arterias pulmonares, en el hombre y en los animales que viven en las grandes alturas, ha demostrado la existencia de varios cambios morfológicos, como la muscularización de las arteriolas así como la proliferación de células musculares lisas en la íntima de las arterias distales. Estos cambios están relacionados con una vasoconstricción como respuesta a la hipoxia y al desarrollo de una hipertensión arterial pulmonar que, en algunos casos, se asocian con hipertrofia ventricular derecha e insuficiencia cardiaca congestiva, como en la enfermedad subaguda de la altura, descrita en el Himalaya y en los Andes en el hombre y en ciertas especies animales. Una posible pérdida de la respuesta vasoconstrictiva por transmisión genética a la hipoxia crónica se ha observado como una aclimatización o adaptación a las grandes alturas.

Acción de la prolactina en los niveles de testosterona plasmática en ratas sometidas a hipoxia de altura / The prolactin action in plasmatic testosterone levels at rats

Ratas albinas macho nacidas a nivel del mar (NM) fueron divididas en dos grupos a los 70 días de nacidas; el primer grupo permaneció a NM y el otro fue llevado a la altura (ALT) (Morococha, 4540 m), con el propósito de estudiar la acción sobre la función testicular de la hipo e hiperprolactinemia, producidas por un dopaminérgico la bromocriptina (CB-154, Sandoz): 4mgr por K.P.C. cada 7 días y un antidopaminérgico, el sulpiride (Dogmatil, Spedrog): 1.5 mgr por k.p.c. dos veces por semana, respectivamente. A los 28 días de tratamiento se determinaron los pesos corporales y de los testículos, así como la prolactina (PRL) y la testosterona (T) plasmática por radioinmunoensayo (RIA), y la alteración testicular (porcentaje de AT) por microscopía de luz. Los animales en la altura presentan mayores niveles séricos de PRL y de T, así como mayor porcentaje de AT que a NM. Los animales llevados a la altura tanto controles como experimentales disminuyen el peso corporal con relación a los del nivel del mar, no así el de los testículos. No hubo variación adicional en los pesos corporales, de testículos y en el porcentaje AT por efecto de la administración de bromocriptina y sulpiride. Se encontró una correlación poligonal entre los niveles de PRL y T plasmáticas, observádose que la hipo y la hiperprolactinemia se asocian a bajos niveles de T. En conclusión la hipoxia aguda a la altura produce un incremento en la secreción de testosterona por los testículos en ratas, que dependería al menos parcialmente de un incremento en los niveles de prolactina.