Bioactive Peptides Derived from Edible Insects: Effects on Human Health and Possible Applications in Dentistry.

Novel foods, including edible insects, are emerging because of their nutritional characteristics and low environmental impacts and could represent a valid alternative source of food in a more sustainable way. Edible insects have been shown to have beneficial effects on human health. Insect-derived bioactive peptides exert antihypertensive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties and have protective effects against common metabolic conditions. In this review, the roles of edible insects in human health are reported, and the possible applications of these peptides in clinical practice are discussed. A special mention is given to the role of antimicrobial peptides and their potential applications in controlling infections in orthodontic procedures. In this context, insects' antimicrobial peptides might represent a potential tool to face the onset of infective endocarditis, with a low chance to develop resistances, and could be manipulated and optimized to replace common antibiotics used in clinical practice so far. Although some safety concerns must be taken into consideration, and the isolation and production of insect-derived proteins are far from easy, edible insects represent an interesting source of peptides, with beneficial effects that may be, in the future, integrated into clinical and orthodontic practice.

Edible Insects an Alternative Nutritional Source of Bioactive Compounds: A Review.

Edible insects have the potential to become one of the major future foods. In fact, they can be considered cheap, highly nutritious, and healthy food sources. International agencies, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), have focused their attention on the consumption of edible insects, in particular, regarding their nutritional value and possible biological, toxicological, and allergenic risks, wishing the development of analytical methods to verify the authenticity, quality, and safety of insect-based products. Edible insects are rich in proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals but also seem to contain large amounts of polyphenols able to have a key role in specific bioactivities. Therefore, this review is an overview of the potential of edible insects as a source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, that can be a function of diet but also related to insect chemical defense. Currently, insect phenolic compounds have mostly been assayed for their antioxidant bioactivity; however, they also exert other activities, such as anti-inflammatory and anticancer activity, antityrosinase, antigenotoxic, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities.

Alternative protein sources of plant, algal, fungal and insect origins for dietary diversification in search of nutrition and health.

This review aimed to compare alternative protein sources in terms of nutritional composition and health benefits with the purpose of disseminating up-to-date knowledge and contribute for diversification of the food marked and consumers decision-making. Plant-based is the most well-established category of alternative proteins, but there is still room for diversification. Less conventional species such as chia seeds are prominent sources of ω-3 (∼60% total lipids), while hempseed and quinoa are notable sources of ω-6 (up to 58% and 61%, respectively). Edible insects and microalgae are alternative foods rich in protein (up to 70%), fibers (∼30%), as well as peptides and polysaccharides with antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, antidiabetic, antidepressant, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities. Additionally, lipid contents in insect larvae can be as high as 50%, on a dry weight basis, containing fatty acids with anti-inflammatory and antitumor properties. In contrast, edible fungi have low lipid contents (∼2%), but are rich in carbohydrates (up to 79%) and have balanced amino acid profiles. The results suggest that food formulations combining different alternative protein sources can meet dietary requirements. Further studies on flavoring and texturing processes will help to create meat and dairy analogs, thus helping to broaden acceptance and applicability of alternative protein sources.

Potential health benefits of edible insects.

Animal-based foods have traditionally been viewed as dietary staples because they provide many essential nutrients; however, edible insects have the potential to serve as healthy, sustainable alternatives to these because of their nutrient contents. Edible insects may have superior health benefits due to their high levels of vitamin B12, iron, zinc, fiber, essential amino acids, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, and antioxidants. The addition of edible insects such as crickets to the human diet could offer a myriad of environmental and nutritional benefits including an overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, decreased agricultural use of land and water, improved prevention and management of chronic diseases like diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease, and enhanced immune function. Future research should aim to understand the beneficial effects of whole insects or insect isolates in comparison to traditional animal- and plant-based foodstuffs. Ultimately, insects have the potential to be used as meat substitutes or dietary supplements, resulting in human health and environmental benefits. The purpose of this review is to provide additional insight on the nutrient composition of edible insects, their potential use as meat substitutes or dietary supplements, the associated health and wellness benefits, and their potential role in exercise performance.

Volatilome and Essential Oil of Ulomoides dermestoides: A Broad-Spectrum Medical Insect.

Ulomoides dermestoides are used as a broad-spectrum medical insect in the alternative treatment of various diseases. Preliminary volatilome studies carried out to date have shown, as the main components, methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, 1-tridecene, 1-pentadecene, and limonene. This work focused on the production of metabolites and their metabolic variations in U. dermestoides under stress conditions to provide additional valuable information to help better understand the broad-spectrum medical uses. To this end, VOCs were characterized by HS-SPME with PEG and CAR/PDMS fibers, and the first reported insect essential oils were obtained. In HS-SMPE, we found 17 terpenes, six quinones, five alkenes, and four aromatic compounds; in the essential oils, 53 terpenes, 54 carboxylic acids and derivatives, three alkynes, 12 alkenes (1-Pentadecene, EOT1: 77.6% and EOT2: 57.9%), 28 alkanes, nine alkyl disulfides, three aromatic compounds, 19 alcohols, three quinones, and 12 aldehydes were identified. Between both study approaches, a total of 171 secondary metabolites were identified with no previous report for U. dermestoides. A considerable number of the identified metabolites showed previous studies of the activity of pharmacological interest. Therefore, considering the wide variety of activities reported for these metabolites, this work allows a broader vision of the therapeutic potential of U. dermestoides in traditional medicine.

Parvaxanthines D-F and Asponguanosines C and D, Racemic Natural Hybrids from the Insect Cyclopelta parva.

Five new compounds including three pairs of enantiomeric xanthine analogues, parvaxanthines D-F (1-3), two new guanosine derivatives, asponguanosines C and D (6 and 7), along with two known adenine derivatives were isolated from the insect Cyclopelta parva. Racemic 1-3 were further separated by chiral HPLC. Their absolute configurations were assigned by spectroscopic and computational methods. It is interesting that all of these isolates are natural product hybrids. Antiviral, immunosuppressive, antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties of all the isolates were evaluated.

Naturally-derived targeted therapy for wound healing: Beyond classical strategies.

This review summarizes the four processes of wound healing in the human body (hemostasis, inflammatory, proliferation, and remodeling) and the most current research on the most important factors affecting cutaneous wound healing and the underlying cellular and/or molecular pathways. Local factors, including temperature, oxygenation, and infection, and systemic factors, such as age, diabetes, sex hormones, genetic components, autoimmune diseases, psychological stress, smoking and obesity are also addressed. A better understanding of the role of these factors in wound repair could result in the development of therapeutics that promote wound healing and resolve affected wounds. Additionally, natural products obtained from plants and animals are critical targets for the discovery of novel biologically significant pharmacophores, such as medicines and agrochemicals. This review outlines the most recent advances in naturally derived targeted treatment for wound healing. These are plant-derived natural products, insect-derived natural products, marine-derived natural products, nanomaterial-based wound-healing therapeutics (metal- and non-metal-based nanoparticles), and natural product-based nanomedicine to improve the future direction of wound healing. Natural products extracted from plants and animals have advanced significantly, particularly in the treatment of wound healing. As a result, the isolation and extraction of bioactive compounds from a variety of sources can continue to advance our understanding of wound healing. Undescribed bioactive compounds or unexplored formulations that could have a role in today's medicinal arsenal may be contained in the abundance of natural products and natural product derivatives.

Effect of policosanol from insect wax on amyloid ß-peptide-induced toxicity in a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans model of Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease (AD), an age-related neurodegenerative disorder and a serious public health concern, is mainly caused by ß-amyloid (Aß)-induced toxicity. Currently, a limited number of drugs are effective against AD, and only a few are used for its treatment. According to traditional Chinese medicine, white wax is mainly composed of policosanol, hexacosanol, and octacosanol. Policosanol has been shown to reduce lipid levels in blood and alleviate the symptoms associated with diabetic complications and neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and AD. However, the efficacy of policosanol depends on the purity and composition of the preparation, and the therapeutic efficacy of policosanol derived from insect wax (PIW) in AD is unknown. METHODS: Here, we identified the main components of PIW and investigated the effects of PIW on Aß-induced toxicity and life-span in a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans model of AD, CL4176. Furthermore, we estimated the expression of amyloid precursor-like protein (apl-1) and the genes involved in various pathways associated with longevity and alleviation of AD-related symptoms in PIW-fed CL4176. RESULTS: PIW mainly consists of tetracosanol, hexacosanol, octacosanol, and triacontanol; it could decrease the Aß-induced paralysis rate from 86.87 to 66.97% (P < 0.01) and extend the life-span from 6.2 d to 7.8 d (P < 0.001) in CL4176 worms. Furthermore, PIW downregulated apl-1, a gene known to be associated with the levels of Aß deposits in C. elegans. Additionally, our results showed that PIW modulated the expression of genes associated with longevity-related pathways such as heat shock response, anti-oxidative stress, and glutamine cysteine synthetase. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that PIW may be a potential therapeutic agent for the prevention and treatment of AD. However, its effects on murine models and patients with AD need to be explored further.

Construction of TUATinsecta database that integrated plant and insect database for screening phytophagous insect metabolic products with medicinal potential.

Phytophagous insect larvae feed on plants containing secondary metabolic products with biological activity against other predatory organisms. Phytophagous insects can use their specialised metabolic systems to covert these secondary metabolic products into compounds with therapeutic properties useful to mankind. Some Asians drink tea decoctions made from phytophagous insect frass which is believed to be effective against inflammatory diseases. However, insects that can convert plant-derived secondary metabolic products into useful human therapeutic agents remain poorly studied. Here, we constructed the TUATinsecta database by integrating publicly plant/insect datasets for the purpose of selecting insect species. Using TUAT-insecta we selected the Asian swallowtail butterfly, Papilio xuthus larvae fed on several species of Rutaceous plants and examined whether the plant-derived secondary metabolites, especially those present in frass, were chemically altered or not. We extracted metabolic products from frass using three organic solvents with different polarities, and evaluated solvent fractions for their cytotoxic effects against several human cell lines. We found that chloroform frass extracts from P. xuthus larvae fed on Poncirus trifoliata leaves contained significant cytotoxic activity. Our findings demonstrate that screening of insect species using the 'TUATinsecta' database provides an important pipeline for discovering novel therapeutic agents that might be useful for mankind.

A Novel Freeze-Drying-Free Strategy to Fabricate a Biobased Tough Aerogel for Separation of Oil/Water Mixtures.

Renewable biobased porous aerogels with excellent biodegradability have versatile applications in oil/water separation, catalysis, and tissue engineering. However, processing of the porous matrix is challenging due to the high energy consumption and low efficiency from the fabrication procedures, such as freeze-drying or critical-drying of the hydrogel, which need to be improved. In the present study, natural amphiphilic oligomer shellac secreted by the lac Kerriar Lacca insect was employed to fabricate the porous template, which could self-assemble into a continuous rigid network with a hydrophobic core. Because of the hydrophobic core, the hydrated shellac network could be directly dried without collapse by the ambient air. The air-drying shellac aerogel presented a great mechanical property. The silane-coating treatment converted this shellac aerogel into a hydrophobic material that absorbed various organic solvents and oils. Also, this silane-coated shellac aerogel also could remove organic solvent or oil from the bottom or surface of the water. Notably, the saturable aerogel rapidly degraded in pH 14 and released the solvent absorbed by this matrix. This porous and hydrophobic matrix also could be applied as a filter that could connect with a vacuum pump to assemble a device for continuous collecting of oil from water. It also has great potential to be employed as a high-efficiency strategy to treat large scale oil spill issues. A new porous template composed of natural resin secreted by the insect was fabricated, and the whole fabrication process was green, low-cost, and energy saving. The surface of this template could be modified further to effectuate other processes, such as catalysis, heavy metal absorption, and tissue proliferation.

Analysing Sr isotopes in low-Sr samples such as single insects with inductively coupled plasma tandem mass spectrometry using N2 O as a reaction gas for in-line Rb separation.

RATIONALE: Strontium isotopes are valuable markers of provenance in a range of disciplines. Limited amounts of Sr in low-mass samples such as insects mean that conventional Sr isotope analysis precludes their use for geographic origins in many ecological studies or in applications such as biosecurity. Here we test the viability of using inductively coupled plasma tandem mass spectrometry (ICP-MS/MS) with N2 O as a reaction gas for accurately determining Sr isotopes in insects with Sr < 100 ng. METHODS: Strontium isotopes were determined in solution mode using ICP-MS/MS with 0.14 L/min N2 O as a reaction gas to convert Sr+ into SrO+ for in-line separation of 87 Sr from 87 Rb. The Sr isotope reference standards NIST SRM 987, NIST SRM 1570a and NIST SRM 1547 were used to assess accuracy and reproducibility. Ten insect species collected from the wild as a proof-of-principle application were analysed for Sr concentration and Sr isotopes. RESULTS: Using ICP-MS/MS we show for the first time that internal mass bias correction of 87 Sr16 O/86 Sr16 O based on 88 Sr16 O/86 Sr16 O works to give for NIST SRM 987 a 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of 0.7101 ± 0.012 (RSD = 0.17%) and for NIST SRM 1570a a 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of 0.7100 ± 0.009 (RSD = 0.12%), which are within error of the accepted values. The first 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of NIST SRM 1547 is 0.7596 ± 0.0014. Strontium analyses were run on 0.8 mL of 0.25-0.5 ppb Sr, which equates to 2-4 ng of Sr. Strontium isotope analysis with a precision of >99.8% can be achieved with in-line separation of 87 Sr from 87 Rb at least up to solutions with 25 ppb Rb. CONCLUSIONS: A minimum of 5 mg of insect tissue is required for Sr isotope analysis. This new ICP-MS/MS method enables Sr isotope analysis in single insects, allowing population-scale studies to be feasible and making possible applications with time-critical uses such as biosecurity.

Beneficial role of insect-derived bioactive components against inflammation and its associated complications (colitis and arthritis) and cancer.

Insect-based bioactive components are emerging as novel sources of drugs, effective against various diseases. Inflammation is considered to be an innate immune response developed by different organisms against foreign pathogens and cellular stress. However, repetitive elevated inflammation is considered to be responsible for development of many other diseases including colitis and arthritis. Due to the limited activities and side effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, researchers are continuously looking for alternative sources of drug molecules to alleviate the inflammatory related complications. Recently, insect-based bioactive components, such as venoms, haemocytes, cecropin A, papiliocin, N-acetyldopamine dimers, cecropin-TY1 peptide, cop A3 peptide, glycosaminoglycan, coprisin peptide, silk fibroin microparticles, and silk fibroin nanoparticles have been found to be active against different inflammatory mechanisms and associated diseases. Cancers, are some of the deadliest diseases, which are mainly treated by chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. However, such treatments, mainly chemotherapy, is associated with enormous side effects. Therefore, as an alternative, less hazardous option, compounds from insects with anti-cancerous activity are being explored. Insect-derived compounds, such as cantharidin, norcantharidin, isocoumarin, plancyols A, plancypyrazine A, pancratistatin, narciclasine, and ungeremine, show potential anti-cancerous activity. In this review, we will be discussing the role of different potential drug molecules of insect origin with special emphasis on anti-inflammation and their association with health disorders and cancer.

Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry for multi-residue screening of pesticides, (veterinary) drugs and mycotoxins in edible insects.

A generic extraction and UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap™-HRMS method was developed for four insect species (mealworm, grasshopper, house cricket and black soldier fly) analyzing a large spectrum of organic chemical contaminants, including pesticides (n = 25), (veterinary) drugs (n = 29), and mycotoxins (n = 23). To prove the method as 'fit-for-purpose', a successful validation was performed, both qualitatively, by determining the screening detection limit (SDL), selectivity and specificity, as well as semi-quantitatively, by assessing the within-day precision (relative standard deviation (RSD)) and recovery. For both the mealworm, grasshopper, house cricket and black soldier fly, 64, 61, 59 and 62 compounds were detected at the respective SDL levels (1-100 µg kg-1), predominantly below existing maximum residue limits for other edible matrices. Mean recoveries ranged between 70% and 120% and RSD-values were in line with European regulations (CD 2002/657/EC; SANCO). Finally, the potential of the screening methodology was demonstrated on real insect samples, revealing minor to no contamination.

Predictability in the evolution of Orthopteran cardenolide insensitivity.

The repeated evolutionary specialization of distantly related insects to cardenolide-containing host plants provides a stunning example of parallel adaptation. Hundreds of herbivorous insect species have independently evolved insensitivity to cardenolides, which are potent inhibitors of the alpha-subunit of Na+,K+-ATPase (ATPα). Previous studies investigating ATPα-mediated cardenolide insensitivity in five insect orders have revealed remarkably high levels of parallelism in the evolution of this trait, including the frequent occurrence of parallel amino acid substitutions at two sites and recurrent episodes of duplication followed by neo-functionalization. Here we add data for a sixth insect order, Orthoptera, which includes an ancient group of highly aposematic cardenolide-sequestering grasshoppers in the family Pyrgomorphidae. We find that Orthopterans exhibit largely predictable patterns of evolution of insensitivity established by sampling other insect orders. Taken together the data lend further support to the proposal that negative pleiotropic constraints are a key determinant in the evolution of cardenolide insensitivity in insects. Furthermore, analysis of our expanded taxonomic survey implicates positive selection acting on site 111 of cardenolide-sequestering species with a single-copy of ATPα, and sites 115, 118 and 122 in lineages with neo-functionalized duplicate copies, all of which are sites of frequent parallel amino acid substitution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Convergent evolution in the genomics era: new insights and directions'.

Naturally occurring of α,ß-diepoxy-containing compounds: origin, structures, and biological activities.

Diepoxy-containing compounds are widely distributed in nature. These metabolites are found in plants and marine organisms and are also produced by many microorganisms, fungi, or fungal endophytes. Many of these metabolites are antibiotics and exhibit a wide variety of biological activities. More than 80 α,ß-diepoxy-containing compounds are presented in this article, which belong to different classes of chemical compounds including lipids, terpenoids, alkaloids, quinones, hydroquinones, and pyrones. The main activities that characterize α,ß-diepoxy-containing compounds are antineoplastic with confidence up to 99%, antifungal with confidence up to 94%, antiinflammatory with confidence up to 92%, or antibacterial with confidence up to 78%. In addition, these metabolites can be used as a lipid metabolism regulator with a certainty of up to 81%, antiviral (Arbovirus) activity with a certainty of up to 71%, or antiallergic activity with confidence up to 69%. These data on the biological activity of diepoxy-containing compounds are of considerable interest to pharmacologists, chemists, and medical professionals who are involved in phytomedicine and related areas of science and industry.

Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography.

Insects are rich in major nutrients, such as protein and fat. Recently, minor nutrients like vitamins have become the subjects of interest in insects. Hence, this study reports on the development and validation of a method for the determination of vitamin B12 in mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larvae), cricket (Gryllus assimilis), grasshopper (Locusta migratoria) and cockroach (Shelfordella lateralis), using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography approach with preliminary immunoaffinity chromatography sample preparation. The method was validated regarding linearity, specificity, accuracy and precision, as well as limits of detection/quantification, and was found to be satisfactory for the desired application. Found levels of vitamin B12 were 1.08 µg/100 g for mealworm, 2.88 µg/100 g for cricket, 0.84 µg/100 g for grasshopper, and 13.2 µg/100 g dry weight for cockroach, representing the first validated report on the content of vitamin B12 in edible insects. Observed interferences are likely caused by the presence of pseudovitamin B12.

Downstream processing of Cry4AaCter-induced inclusion bodies containing insect-derived antimicrobial peptides produced in Escherichia coli.

The Cry4AaCter tag is a pull-down tag which promotes the formation of inclusion bodies (IBs) that can be resolubilized in an alkaline buffer. Here, we used the Cry4AaCter tag to create a platform for the production of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in Escherichia coli featuring a uniform resolubilization process independent of the peptide fused to the pull-down tag. The Cry4AaCter tag conserves the bioactivity of fusion proteins and thus allows the purification of simple AMPs and more complex AMPs stabilized by disulfide bonds. We developed a downstream process (DSP) for the purification of IBs containing the mutated Galleria mellonella insect metalloprotease inhibitor IMPI(I38V), which has a globular structure stabilized by five disulfide bonds. IMPI(I38V) is a potent inhibitor of the M4 metalloproteases used as virulence factors by several human pathogens. We used a single crossflow filtration for the washing and resolubilization of the Cry4AaCter-induced IBs and obtained bioactive IMPI(I38V) after tag removal. We achieved a 68-fold higher protein yield using our IB system compared to an alternative DSP approach in which a GST-fusion strategy was used to produce soluble IMPI(I38V). The Cry4AaCter-based process was transferable to gloverin (another G. mellonella AMP) and the visible marker green fluorescent protein, which accumulated in fluorescent IBs, confirming it is a broadly applicable strategy for the recovery of functional proteins.

Aflatoxin Contamination of Dried Insects and Fish in Zambia.

Dried insects and fish are important sources of income and dietary protein in Zambia. Some aflatoxin-producing fungi are entomopathogenic and also colonize insects and fish after harvest and processing. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, immune-suppressing mycotoxins that are frequent food contaminants worldwide. Several species within Aspergillus section Flavi have been implicated as causal agents of aflatoxin contamination of crops in Africa. However, aflatoxin producers associated with dried fish and edible insects in Zambia remain unknown, and aflatoxin concentrations in these foods have been inadequately evaluated. The current study sought to address these data gaps to assess potential human vulnerability through the dried fish and edible insect routes of aflatoxin exposure. Caterpillars ( n = 97), termites ( n = 4), and dried fish ( n = 66) sampled in 2016 and 2017 were assayed for aflatoxin by using lateral flow immunochromatography. Average aflatoxin concentrations exceeded regulatory limits for Zambia (10 µg/kg) in the moth Gynanisa maja (11 µg/kg), the moth Gonimbrasia zambesina (Walker) (12 µg/kg), and the termite Macrotermes falciger (Gerstacker) (24 µg/kg). When samples were subjected to simulated poor storage, aflatoxins increased ( P < 0.001) to unsafe levels in caterpillars (mean, 4,800 µg/kg) and fish ( Oreochromis) (mean, 23 µg/kg). The L strain morphotype of A. flavus was the most common aflatoxin producer on dried fish (88% of Aspergillus section Flavi), termites (68%), and caterpillars (61%), with the exception of Gynanisa maja, for which A. parasiticus was the most common (44%). Dried fish and insects supported growth (mean, 1.3 × 109 CFU/g) and aflatoxin production (mean, 63,620 µg/kg) by previously characterized toxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi species, although the extent of growth and aflatoxigenicity depended on specific fungus-host combinations. The current study shows the need for proper storage and testing of dried insects and fish before consumption as measures to mitigate human exposure to aflatoxins through consumption in Zambia.

Insects as sources of iron and zinc in human nutrition.

Dietary deficiencies in Fe and Zn are globally widespread, causing serious health problems such as anaemia, poor pregnancy outcomes, increased risk of morbidity and mortality, stunted growth and impaired physical and cognitive development. Edible insects, of which a diversity of over 2000 species is available, are dietary components for about 2 billion individuals and are a valuable source of animal protein. In the present paper, we review the available information on Fe and Zn in edible insects and their potential as a source of these micronutrients for the rapidly growing human population. The levels of Fe and Zn present in eleven edible insect species that are mass-reared and six species that are collected from nature are similar to or higher than in other animal-based food sources. High protein levels in edible insect species are associated with high Fe and Zn levels. Fe and Zn levels are significantly positively correlated. Biochemically, Fe and Zn in insects occur predominantly in non-haem forms, bound to the proteins ferritin, transferrin and other transport and storage proteins. Knowledge gaps exist for bioavailability in the human alimentary tract, the effect of anti-nutritional factors in other dietary components such as grains on Fe and Zn absorption and the effect of food preparation methods. We conclude that edible insects present unique opportunities for improving the micronutrient status of both resource-poor and Western populations.

Hepatoprotective Effects of Insect Extracts in an Animal Model of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease.

Insects represent the largest and most diverse group of organisms on earth and are potential food and drug resources. Recently, we have demonstrated that a Forsythia viridissima extract prevented free fatty acid-induced lipid accumulation in an in vitro cellular nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) model. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective effects of extracts of the insects Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis Kolbe, 1886 (PB), Oxya chinensis sinuosa Mishchenko, 1951 (OC), and Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer, 1773 (GB) in a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD animal model, as well as to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. The effects of the supplementation with PB, OC, and GB extracts were evaluated histopathologically and histochemically. PB, OC, and GB extract supplementation inhibited the HFD-induced increase in body weight and body fat mass and ameliorated other adverse changes, resulting in decreased liver function parameters, lower serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels, and increased serum adiponectin levels. The expression of hepatic genes involved in lipid droplet accumulation and in fatty acid uptake also decreased upon treatment of HFD-fed mice with the extracts. These results provide evidence of the protective effects of the PB, OC, and GB extracts against HFD-induced fatty liver disease in an animal model.