[The oleic triglycerides of palm oil and palmitic triglycerides of creamy fat. The reaction of palmitoylation, potassium and magnesium palmitate, absorption of fatty acids by enterocytes and microbiota of large intestine].

The decreasing of content of animal, palmitic milk fat (butter) by means of its substitution with vegetable, oleic, palmy oil in food of adults optimal by its quantity is physically chemically and biologically substantiated. In oleic palmy oil higher content of oleic mono unsaturated fatty acid and oleic triglycerides than in creamy fat is established. The biologic availability of palmitic unsaturated palmitic acid in the form of free fatty acid is decreased at its absorption by enterocytes of small intestines is detected. There are no transforms of mono unsaturated acids in palmy oil in contrast with hydrogenated margarines. In palmy, oleic oil there is not enough of short-chained fatty acids (C4-C6) and it has no taste quality and it has low level of unsaturated fatty acids and factually it is lacking of ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, it is compensated in case of availability offish and sea products in food. If adults, especially older ones, will refuse to consume creamy fat and decrease intake of products with high content of palmitic unsaturated fatty acid and palmitic triglycerides (beef, sour cream, fatty cheeses) it'll positively impact their health. The refusal from these products is a real step in prevention of metabolic pandemic (atherosclerosis and atheromatosis, metabolic syndrome, resistance to insulin, obesity). There are still large number of people who at optimal amount of food retain in vivo increased amount of exogenous, endogenously synthesized from glucose palmitic unsaturated fatty acid in the form of unesterified fatty acids (syndrome of resistance to insulin) and increased content of palmitic triglycerides.

Fat intake and breast milk fatty acid composition in farming and nonfarming women and allergy development in the offspring.

BACKGROUND: Children growing up on small family farms are at much lower risk of developing allergy than other children. We hypothesized that low intake of margarine and polyunsaturated fats among farming families could contribute to this protection. METHODS: Twenty-eight mother-infant pairs living on small dairy farms and 37 nonfarm rural resident pairs were recruited in the FARMFLORA birth cohort. Food items expected to affect dietary fat composition were recorded by food frequency questionnaires during pregnancy and by 24-h recalls followed by 24-h food diaries during lactation. Allergy was diagnosed by doctors, using strict predefined criteria. Maternal diet and breast milk fat composition were compared between farming and nonfarming mothers and related to children's allergy at age 3 y. RESULTS: Farming mothers consumed more butter, whole milk, saturated fat, and total fat than nonfarming mothers, who consumed more margarine, oils, and low-fat milk. Farming mothers' breast milk contained higher proportions of saturated and lower proportions of polyunsaturated fat. Allergy was eight times more common in nonfarm children. Mothers of allergic children consumed more margarine and oils than mothers of nonallergic children. CONCLUSION: Low maternal consumption of margarine and vegetable oils might contribute to the allergy-preventive effect of growing up on small dairy farms.

Olive oil consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in US women.

BACKGROUND: Olive oil has been shown to improve various cardiometabolic risk factors. However, to our knowledge, the association between olive oil intake and type 2 diabetes (T2D) has never been evaluated in the US population. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to examine the association between olive oil intake and incident T2D. DESIGN: We followed 59,930 women aged 37-65 y from the Nurses' Health Study (NHS) and 85,157 women aged 26-45 y from the NHS II who were free of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer at baseline. Diet was assessed by validated food-frequency questionnaires, and data were updated every 4 y. Incident cases of T2D were identified through self-report and confirmed by supplementary questionnaires. RESULTS: After 22 y of follow-up, we documented 5738 and 3914 incident cases of T2D in the NHS and NHS II, respectively. With the use of Cox regression models with repeated measurements of diet and multivariate adjustment for major lifestyle and dietary factors, the pooled HR (95% CI) of T2D in those who consumed >1 tablespoon (>8 g) of total olive oil per day compared with those who never consumed olive oil was 0.90 (0.82, 0.99). The corresponding HRs (95% CIs) were 0.95 (0.87, 1.04) for salad dressing olive oil and 0.85 (0.74, 0.98) for olive oil added to food or bread. We estimated that substituting olive oil (8 g/d) for stick margarine, butter, or mayonnaise was associated with 5%, 8%, and 15% lower risk of T2D, respectively, in the pooled analysis of both cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that higher olive oil intake is associated with modestly lower risk of T2D in women and that hypothetically substituting other types of fats and salad dressings (stick margarine, butter, and mayonnaise) with olive oil is inversely associated with T2D.

Enzymatic interesterification of palm stearin with Cinnamomum camphora seed oil to produce zero-trans medium-chain triacylglycerols-enriched plastic fat.

It is known that Cinnamomum camphora seed oil (CCSO) is rich in medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) or medium-chain triacylglycerols (MCTs). The purpose of the present study was to produce zero-trans MCTs-enriched plastic fat from a lipid mixture (500 g) of palm stearin (PS) and CCSO at 3 weight ratios (PS:CCSO 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, wt/wt) by using lipase (Lipozyme TL IM, 10% of total substrate) as a catalyst at 65 °C for 8 h. The major fatty acids of the products were palmitic acid (C16:0, 42.68% to 53.42%), oleic acid (C18:1, 22.41% to 23.46%), and MCFAs (8.67% to 18.73%). Alpha-tocopherol (0.48 to 2.51 mg/100 g), γ-tocopherol (1.70 to 3.88 mg/100 g), and δ-tocopherol (2.08 to 3.95 mg/100 g) were detected in the interesterified products. The physical properties including solid fat content (SFC), slip melting point (SMP), and crystal polymorphism of the products were evaluated for possible application in shortening or margarine. Results showed that the SFCs of interesterified products at 25 °C were 9% (60:40, PS:CCSO), 18.50% (70:30, PS:CCSO), and 29.2% (80:20, PS:CCSO), respectively. The ß' crystal form was found in most of the interesterified products. Furthermore, no trans fatty acids were detected in the products. Such zero-trans MCT-enriched fats may have a potential functionality for shortenings and margarines which may become a new type of nutritional plastic fat for daily diet.

Efectos de las dietas enriquecidas con margarina sobre el cronotropismo auricular y la potenciación posreposo ventrícular derecha de ratas sprague-dawley / Effects of diets enriched margarine on the headset and empowerment chronotropism posreposo right ventricle of Sprague-Dawley

La margarina es fuente de ácidos grasos saturados (AGS), insaturados y trans (AGT) en la dieta diaria, estos son incorporados en los fosfolípidos de las membranas celulares. Nos planteamos un estudio experimental de los efectos de los AGS y AGT de la margarina en la cinética de potenciación posreposo ventricular derecha y el cronotropismo auricular en corazón de rata. Tres grupos de ratas Sprague-Dawley recibieron alimento estándar enriquecido con aceite de soya o margarina, respectivamente, por 4 semanas. Se estudió el cronotropismo auricular utilizando dosis crecientes de Epinefrina y en ventrículo derecho, la fuerza de estado estable y la potenciación post-reposo en presencia y ausencia de Verapamil. Las dietas enriquecidas con margarina disminuyeron significativamente (P<0,05) la fuerza contráctil del estado estable y la cinética de potenciación post-reposo en comparación a las otras dietas mientras que no se encontró diferencias en el cronotropismo auricular

Margarine is a source of saturated fatty acids (SFA), unsaturated and trans (TFA) in daily diet, these are incorporated into the cell membranes phospholipids. We considered an experimental study about the effects of margarine’s SFA and TFA on the right ventricle post-rest potentiation kinetics and atrial chronotropism in rat heart. Three groups of Sprague- Dawley rats received standard food enriched with soybean oil or margarine, respectively, for 4 weeks. We studied the atrial chronotropism using increasing doses of epinephrine and in right ventricle, steady-state force and post-rest potentiation in presence and absence of Verapamil. Margarine-enriched diets significantly reduced (p<0,05) contractile force in steady-state and post-rest potentiation kinetics in comparison to other diets, while no differences were found in atrial chronotropism

[Food intake and colorectal cancers; an ecological study in Romania]. / Consumul de alimente in relatie cu cancerul colo-rectal. Studiu ecologic in România.

UNLABELLED: The aim of the present study performed in a Romanian population was to identify the food which can be either associated with or protect against colorectal carcinoma. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Correlation and regression analysis were used to examine the association between dietary intake and the rate of incidence for colon, rectum and anus cancers, in study groups from 7 regions of Romania. RESULTS: A strong and positive association was observed for colonic cancer and the intake of coffee, tea and cocoa (r = 0.77, p = 0.042) whereas statistical significance of borderline value was found for margarine (r = 0.73, p = 0.06) and sweets (r = 0.74, p = 0.066) intake. A potential protective effect can be attributed to wine consumption ( r = -0.75, p = 0.03). The malignancies of the rectum and anus showed both a strong positive correlation with the intake of red meat ( r = 0.76, p = 0.048), sausages ( r = 0.87, p = 0.012), margarine (r = 0.97, p = 0.0004), butter ( r = 0.76, p = 0.049), sweets ( r = 0.93, p = 0.003), beverages (r = 0.97, p = 0.0003), coffee, tea, cocoa ( r = 0.94, p = 0.002). Negative correlations were reported for the recto-anal cancer and the consumption of: fish (r = -0.8, p = 0.032), cheese (r = -0.9, p = 0.006), wine (r = -0.85, p = 0.015). CONCLUSION: The need for reducing the dietary intake of margarine, red meat, sausages and sweets while the beneficial effects of wine consumption have been also confirmed.

Dietary intake of fatty acids, antioxidants and selected food groups and asthma in adults.

OBJECTIVE: Within a prospective study, we explored the associations between dietary intake of fatty acids, antioxidants and relevant food sources of these nutrients on the clinical manifestation of asthma in adulthood. METHOD: A total of 105 newly physician-diagnosed cases of asthma from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Heidelberg cohort were identified during follow-up and matched with 420 controls. Baseline dietary intake was obtained by means of validated food frequency questionnaires. The association of dietary intake variables and asthma risk was explored by unconditional logistic regression models. RESULTS: A high intake of oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) was positively associated with asthma (P-value for trend 0.035), while no significant associations were found for the other dietary fatty acids. Most prominently, a high margarine intake increased the risk of onset of asthma in adulthood (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 3rd tertile: 1.73 (95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.05-2.87), P for trend=0.050), the effect being stronger in men (2nd tertile: OR=1.66, 3rd tertile: OR=2.51) than in women (2nd tertile: OR=0.91; 3rd tertile: OR=1.47). The dietary intake of antioxidants and their main food sources had no effect on asthma risk. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, the present results provide evidence that even in adulthood a high margarine intake increases the risk of clinical onset of asthma. Whether oleic acid may serve as a proxy for margarine-derived trans-fatty acids (C18:1 t9) remains to be clarified.

AHA Science Advisory. Stanol/sterol ester-containing foods and blood cholesterol levels. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association.

Considerable attention in the recent past has focused on the potential benefits or adverse effects of butter versus different types of margarines, usually with respect to their relative content of polyunsaturated, saturated, and trans fatty acids, and the impact of these on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Recently, a new class of margarines and other fat-derived products (eg, salad dressings, mayonnaise) containing plant-derived sterols that are intended for use to lower blood cholesterol levels have been introduced into the food supply. These products are being marketed as adjuncts to low-saturated-fat and low-cholesterol diets to maximize reductions in LDL cholesterol levels achievable by dietary means.

Acidos grasos trans: actualización y situación Argentina / Trans greasy acids: update and situation in Argentina

La hidrogenación biológica de los rumiantes o la industrial producen isomerización de los ácidos grasos que componen la grasa, pudiéndose formar isómeros trans. Se ha postulado que una dieta alta de estos isómeros puede ser un riesgo para la salud, aunque no se conocen con certeza las consecuencias de su ingesta. Existen numerosos estudios epidemiológicos que asocian el consumo de ácidos grasos trans con riesgos como: aumento del colesterol LDL y disminución del HDL, aumento del riesgo de enfermedad coronaria, aumento del la Lp(a), aumento de la probabilidad de padecer cáncer de mama y de colon, la interferencia en el metabolismo de los ácidos grasos esenciales y también se cree que pueden comprometer el desarrollo fetal e infantil. En varios países se ha disminuído el consumo de isómeros trans mediante la reducción del contenido de los mismos en margarinas (una de las principales fuentes de trans) pero no así en productos alimenticios industriales. La ingesta estimada de AG trans para EE.UU. es de 5,3 - 8,1 g/día y en Europa de 1,4 - 5,4 g/día. Hasta nuestro conocimiento, en la Argentina todavía no hay datos de ingesta de AG trans como así tampoco información sobre el contenido de éstos en los alimentos. En este trabajo se incluyen los resultados de análisis realizados en algunos alimentos potenciales fuentes de AG trans y datos sobre su contenido en leche materna como reflejo de su consumo. Los valores más altos fueron hallados en las margarinas (19 a 9,5 g por ciento), mientras que papas fritas de "fast food" contenían 6,5 g por ciento y algunos panificados con 0,1 a 3,6 g por ciento. En la leche materna se halló que un 2,5 g por ciento del total de ácidos grasos se hallaban en forma de isómeros trans

Replacement of partially hydrogenated soybean oil by palm oil in margarine without unfavorable effects on serum lipoproteins.

We have compared the effects of three different margarines, one based on palm oil (PALM-margarine), one based on partially hydrogenated soybean oil (TRANS-margarine) and one with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA-margarine), on serum lipids in 27 young women. The main purpose of the study was to test if replacement of trans fatty acids in margarine by palmitic acid results in unfavorable effects on serum lipids. The sum of saturated fatty acids (12:0, 14:0, 16:0) was 36.3% of total fatty acids in the PALM-diet, the same as the sum of saturated (12:0, 14:0, 16:0) (12.5%) and trans (23.1%) fatty acids in the TRANS-diet. This sum was 20.7% in the PUFA-diet. The content of oleic acid was 37.9, 35.2, and 38.6%, respectively, in the three diets, whereas linoleic acid amounted to 16, 13.5, and 27.3%, respectively. Total fat provided 30-31% and the test margarines 26% of total energy in all three diets. The subjects consumed each of the diets for 17 d in a Latin-square crossover design. There were no significant differences in total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol and apolipoprotein B (apoB) between the TRANS- and the PALM-diets. High density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol and apoA-1 were significantly higher on the PALM-diet compared to the TRANS-diet whereas the ratio of LDL-cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol was lower, although not significantly (P = 0.077) on the PALM-diet. Total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and apoB were significantly lower on the PUFA-diet compared to the two other diets. HDL-cholesterol was not different on the PALM- and the PUFA-diets but it was significantly lower on the TRANS-diet compared to the PUFA diet. Compared to the PUFA-diet the ratio of LDL- to HDL-cholesterol was higher on both the PALM- and the TRANS-diets whereas apoA-1 was not different. Triglycerides and lipoprotein (a) were not significantly different among the three diets. We concluded that nutritionally, palmitic acid from palm oil may be a reasonable alternative to trans fatty acids from partially hydrogenated soybean oil in margarine if the aim is to avoid trans fatty acids. A palm oil-based margarine is, however, less favorable than one based on a more polyunsaturated vegetable oil.

Margarine intake and risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Italian women.

OBJECTIVES: Since a relation between trans-fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases has been described, we examined the relationship between margarine intake and nonfatal acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in Italian women. DESIGN: Hospital-based case-control study. SETTING: Northern Italy between 1983 and 1992. SUBJECTS: Cases were 429 women, aged 18-74 y, in hospital with diagnosis of AMI and 866 controls in hospital for acute, non-cardiovascular, non-neoplastic, non-digestive, non-hormone-related conditions. ANALYSIS: Odds ratios (OR), with their 95% confidence intervals (CI), were computed by unconditional multiple logistic regression analysis, including terms for age, education, body mass index, smoking, alcohol and coffee drinking, menopausal status, hormone replacement therapy and history of diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidemia. RESULTS: Medium or high intake of margarine was associated with an increased risk of AMI (multivariate OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.0-2.2). Analysis in separate strata of covariates indicated that the association was independent of body mass index, history of hypertension and hyperlipidemia, and was greater in older women and in current smokers. CONCLUSIONS: If real, the association with margarine could explain about 6% of AMI in this population of Italian women.

A case-control study of ulcerative colitis in relation to dietary and other factors in Japan. The Epidemiology Group of the Research Committee of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Japan.

The etiology of ulcerative colitis is essentially unknown. A hospital-based case-control study examined the risk of ulcerative colitis in relation to dietary and other factors. Recruited at 20 hospitals across the nation were 101 ulcerative colitis patients who were 10-39 years old at the time of disease onset and whose disease had been diagnosed within the past 3 years. One hundred and forty-three control subjects were also examined. Information on factors was obtained by using a self-administered questionnaire. Combined consumption of western foods (bread for breakfast, butter, margarine, cheese, meats, and ham/ sausage) was significantly related to an increased risk of ulcerative colitis (trend P = 0.04). Of the six food items of the western food group, margarine was positively and significantly associated with ulcerative colitis (trend P = 0.005), and bread for breakfast tended to be positively associated with the risk (trend P = 0.07). No appreciable association was found for the consumption of Japanese foods, vegetables and fruits, confectionery, or soft drinks. Compared with lifelong nonsmokers, current smokers had a decreased risk, and former smokers had an increased risk. This study confirmed a protective association between smoking and ulcerative colitis, and suggested that margarine or chemically modified fat may play an etiological role in the development of ulcerative colitis.

Sodium butyrate inhibits the enhancing effect of high fat diet on mammary tumorigenesis.

We have studied the effect of butyrate on mammary tumorigenesis by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene. As reported previously, a high incidence of mammary tumors was observed in rats fed a basal diet containing 20% margarine. However, the enhancing effect of margarine was inhibited when sodium butyrate was supplemented in the high margarine diet. Sodium butyrate did not cause any effect when it was supplemented in the basal diet. The result suggests a possibility that a part of the inhibitory effect of butter on mammary tumorigenesis, which we had previously reported, was caused by butyrate milk lipids.

Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women.

Trans isomers of fatty acids, formed by the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils to produce margarine and vegetable shortening, increase the ratio of plasma low-density-lipoprotein to high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, so it is possible that they adversely influence risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). To investigate this possibility, we studied dietary data from participants in the Nurses' Health Study. We calculated intake of trans fatty acids from dietary questionnaires completed by 85,095 women without diagnosed CHD, stroke, diabetes, or hypercholesterolaemia in 1980. During 8 years of follow-up, there were 431 cases of new CHD (non-fatal myocardial infarction or death from CHD). After adjustment for age and total energy intake, intake of trans isomers was directly related to risk of CHD (relative risk for highest vs lowest quintile 1.50 [95% Cl 1.12-2.00], p for trend = 0.001). Additional control for established CHD risk factors, multivitamin use, and intakes of saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and linoleic acid, dietary cholesterol, vitamins E or C, carotene, or fibre did not change the relative risk substantially. The association was stronger for the 69,181 women whose margarine consumption over the previous 10 years had been stable (1.67 [1.05-2.66], p for trend = 0.002). Intakes of foods that are major sources of trans isomers (margarine, cookies [biscuits], cake, and white bread) were each significantly associated with higher risks of CHD. These findings support the hypothesis that consumption of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils may contribute to occurrence of CHD.

The antiproliferative effect of dietary calcium on colonic epithelium is mediated by luminal surfactants and dependent on the type of dietary fat.

Bile acids and fatty acids may promote colon cancer by inducing colonic hyperproliferation. Dietary calcium inhibits the promoting effects of bile acids and fatty acids, possibly by precipitating these surfactants and lowering their cytolytic activity. Because bile acids and fatty acids are products of fat digestion, their effects may be dependent on the type of dietary fat. The effects of the type of dietary fat (energy percentage, 40) and of CaHPO4 supplementation (25 versus 225 mumol/g diet) on the luminal solubility of surfactants, cytolytic activity, epitheliolysis, and in vivo colonic proliferation were studied in rats using Western high-risk diets. The different types of commercially available fats were butter, saturated margarine, and polyunsaturated margarine. Supplemental calcium drastically increased fecal fatty acid excretion, the effect being dependent on the type of fat, and slightly stimulated fecal bile acid excretion. Soluble surfactant concentrations were drastically decreased by calcium supplementation with all three types of dietary fat. Consequently, cytolytic activity of fecal water was decreased by supplemental calcium. These luminal effects of calcium resulted in a lower intestinal epitheliolysis. The compensatory proliferation of the colonic epithelium was decreased by supplemental CaHPO4 for the butter and saturated margarine diets. Despite CaHPO4-dependent decreases in luminal effects and epitheliolysis, no significant decrease in proliferation on the polyunsaturated margarine diet was observed. Multiple regression analysis of soluble surfactants with cytolytic activity (R = 0.76), epitheliolysis (R = 0.74), and colonic proliferation (R = 0.84) showed highly significant associations. Cytolytic activity and epitheliolysis as well as epitheliolysis and proliferation were highly correlated (r = 0.97 and r = 0.88, respectively; n = 36) for control and CaHPO4-supplemented diets, suggesting cause-and-effect relationships. It is concluded that the antiproliferative effect of dietary calcium is mediated by the precipitation of luminal surfactants and is dependent on the type of dietary fat.

Fats in seasoning and breast cancer risk: an Italian case-control study.

The relationship between consumption of fat in seasoning and risk of breast cancer was considered in a case-control study conducted in northern Italy of 2663 cases of breast cancer and 2344 controls admitted in the same network of hospitals with acute, non-neoplastic and non-gynaecological conditions. Subjective scores corresponding to three levels (low, intermediate and high) of intake of butter, margarine and oil, together with a combined variable of these three items ("total fat"), were used to evaluate the personal use of fat in seasoning. Compared to low use, a slight but significant increase in risk was observed for intermediate and high intake of butter, oil and total fat with relative risks of 1.5 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.9) for high intake of butter, 1.3 (95% CI, 1.0-1.6) for high intake of oil and 1.4 (95% CI, 1.2-1.7) for high intake of total seasoning fat. These results were not materially modified after allowance for a number of identified potentially distorting factors. The results of this study suggest that there is a positive association, although moderate, between breast cancer risk and intake of fat added in seasoning, which may represent an indirect indicator of the subject's attitude towards fat.

[Chemically prepared fats and Crohn disease. A pilot study of the occurrence of trans-fatty acids in the subcutaneous tissue of Crohn patients in comparison with healthy controls as a parameter of long-term fat intake]. / Chemisch aufbereitetes Fett und Morbus Crohn. Eine Pilotstudie zum Vorkommen von trans-Fettsäuren im Unterhautfettgewebe von Crohn-Patienten im Vergleich mit gesunden Kontrollen als Parameter des Langzeit-Fettverzehrs.

In a pilot study the fatty acid pattern of subcutaneous adipose tissue from 22 patients with Crohn's disease and 22 subjects of a healthy control group was analyzed using glass capillary gas-liquid chromatography. Among all fatty acids amounting to at least 1% peak area of the chromatograms, only trans-octadecenoate differed significantly (p less than 0.05) between both study groups, the mean value being 2.39 +/- 0.83% in patients with Crohn's disease and 1.96 +/- 0.46% in healthy controls. Also the mean value of trans-hexadecenoate was significantly (p less than 0.05) higher in the Crohn group (0.25 +/- 0.07%) than in the control group (0.21 +/- 0.06%). There was a strongly positive linear correlation (p less than 0.001) between the trans-hexadecenoate and trans-octadecenoate values for the Crohn patients but not for the controls. Our results demonstrate that patients with Crohn's disease as a group consume more trans-monoene fatty acids than healthy controls, thus providing evidence for a higher intake of chemically processed fats like margarine, shortenings, frying and cooking fats. In further studies which are necessary to examine Guthy's hypothesis the fatty acid composition of adipose tissue should be followed up as an ideal marker of long-term dietary compliance.