Brain homogenate stability for stimulant drugs.

Brain can be a useful specimen for toxicology testing as it is a protected and isolated organ with lower metabolic activity than other tissues, but there is currently no published data supporting the stability of stimulant drugs in prepared brain homogenates. Brain homogenates were evaluated to determine the stability of the following stimulant drugs: amphetamine, benzoylecgonine, bupropion, cocaethylene, cocaine, ephedrine, methylenedioxyamphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methamphetamine, and phentermine. Four different homogenates were prepared at a 1:4 dilution with deionized water and fortified at 500 ng/mL of: cocaine without sodium fluoride, cocaine with 1% sodium fluoride, stimulant drugs other than cocaine without sodium fluoride, and stimulant drugs other than cocaine with 1% sodium fluoride. The fortified homogenates were aliquoted into 13 × 100-mm screw cap tubes and stored at room temperature (∼20°C), refrigerated (2-8°C), or frozen (<-5°C) and analyzed in triplicate on Days 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 30, 60, and 90. Analytes were considered stable as long as the difference in analyte/internal standard response ratio from Day 0 was less than 20% and the peaks met qualitative acceptance criteria. All analytes were stable for up to 90 days when stored frozen with or without sodium fluoride and had variable stability at all other evaluated conditions.

Monitoring of changes in illicit drugs, alcohol, and nicotine consumption during Ramadan via wastewater analysis.

Illicit drug use is a global problem imposing social, economic, and health burdens on society. Wastewater-based epidemiology is an approach based on calculating the consumption of substances in the target population by analyzing the concentrations of human metabolic excretion products of licit and illicit substances in wastewater. This study estimated the changes in illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), heroin, and marijuana (THC)), alcohol, and nicotine consumption in Adana Province during Ramadan compared to normal periods using wastewater-based epidemiology. An overall decrease was observed during the Ramadan Period, most strongly for ecstasy (29%) followed by heroin (19%). For cocaine, the variation was the slightest (8.6%). The differences were statistically significant for ecstasy, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol but not for cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and marijuana. This study is the first to show changes in the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and nicotine under the influence of religious beliefs. In addition, there is limited data about illicit drugs, alcohol and nicotine abusers/users in Ramadan. This study provides information on the literature on this subject.

Deposition of methamphetamine residues produced by simulated smoking.

In New Zealand, many concerns have been raised over the presence of methamphetamine contamination in households, especially when its provenance is unknown. Previous research found that contamination levels on household surfaces were higher after the premises had been used as a clandestine laboratory. It is believed that the levels of contamination produced from smoking methamphetamine are much less than those produced through manufacture. This study's aim was to determine the amount of methamphetamine contamination produced, after simulated smoking, on a range of common, smooth surface types. Accumulation over time was also investigated. The experiment, comprising four simulated smoking events (referred to as 'smokes') of 0.2 g followed by a fifth simulated smoking event of 1.2 g (a cumulative total of 2 g) of methamphetamine hydrochloride, was carried out in a shipping container. Subsequent swabs were taken from squares of 100 cm2, following the NIOSH 9111 method. Results were quantified using LC-MS/MS. The methamphetamine concentrations measured gave a range from an overall mean of 0.91 µg/100 cm2 after the first smoke and 15.9 µg/100 cm2 after the final smoke. A rate of accumulation for each surface type was established, as well as an order of surfaces showing the most to least observed contamination. A significant reduction in the level of contamination was observed over a short period of time, although a clear rate was not established. Finally, a relationship between the recovered amounts of methamphetamine and amphetamine produced through the pyrolysis (smoking) process was also determined.

Enantiomeric profiling of amphetamines in wastewater using chiral derivatisation with gas chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric detection.

Enantiomeric profiling can supplement wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) by providing additional information on drug origin (licit or illicit), improving consumption estimates, i.e., differentiating between disposal and consumption, and offering an insight into the potency of drugs available on the illicit drug market. We report on the enantiomeric profiling of amphetamines in wastewater using R(-)-α-methoxy-α-(trifluoromethyl) phenylacetyl chloride (R-MTPCl), a chiral derivatising agent and GC-MS/MS. The method performed well when evaluated against the SANTE/12682/2019 guidelines in terms of recovery (81-99%), accuracy (99-111%), repeatability (1-8%RSD) and linearity (LOQ-1000 ng/mL). The LOD and LOQ were 120 ng/L and 400 ng/L, respectively. The method was applied to samples of raw wastewater from two Slovene municipalities with unusual levels of amphetamines: Ljubljana (LJ1) and Velenje (VE1). LJ1 had an anomalously high mass load of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) identified during SCORE 2020, and VE1 is a representative sample of the consistently high mass load of amphetamine. A second Ljubljana sample (LJ2) was chosen as a representative sample. The presence of racemic MDMA (EF = 0.511) in LJ1 indicated the disposal of the unused drug into the sewer, while the enrichment of R-MDMA (EF = 0.666) in the combined extract sample from Ljubljana (LJ2) indicated consumption. In the case of Velenje and Ljubljana, it is impossible to distinguish between the direct disposal and consumption of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Also, since amphetamine/methamphetamine-based prescription medications are unavailable in Slovenia, racemic amphetamine in VE1 (EF = 0.514) and LJ2 (EF = 0.459) indicate racemic and the more potent S-amphetamine are sold on the illicit drug market. Only S-methamphetamine was detected in wastewater (LJ2: EF = 0), indicating the presence of only the more potent S-methamphetamine on the illicit drug market. Overall, enantiomeric profiling provided useful information on amphetamine residues. In addition, chiral derivatisation can be a cost-effective alternative to using chiral chromatographic columns for the enantiomeric profiling of amphetamines in wastewater.

Confined DART-MS for Rapid Chemical Analysis of Electronic Cigarette Aerosols and Spiked Drugs.

A confined direct analysis in a real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) system and method were developed for coupling directly with commercial electronic cigarettes for rapid analysis without sample preparation. The system consisted of a confining heated glass T-junction, DART ionization source, and Vapur interface to assist aerodynamic transport. Suction generated by positioning the electronic cigarette at the junction inlet allowed for direct chemical analysis of aerosolized electronic liquids from both automatic devices powered by drag and manual button-operated devices, which is unachievable with traditional DART-MS. Parametric analyses for the system investigated Vapur suction flow rate, junction heating, puff duration, and coil power levels. Using this method, rapid chemical analyses of electronic cigarette aerosols from electronic liquids, spiked illicit drugs, and polymeric or plasticizer contaminants were performed in <30 s. The confined DART-MS method provides a streamlined tool for rapid screening of illicit and hazardous chemical profiles emitting from electronic cigarettes.

Dopant for detection of methamphetamine in the presence of nicotine with ion mobility spectrometry.

Methamphetamine (MA) is a highly addictive and illegal psychostimulant drug and is currently one of the most commonly abused illicit drugs in the world. The on-site rapid detection of trace amounts of MA and screening illicit drugs in clandestine laboratories is important for drug enforcement agencies and the forensic community in general. However, detecting methamphetamine in the presence of nicotine and cigarette smoke by ion mobility spectrometry faces difficulty due to the overlapped spectral peaks of methamphetamine and nicotine. In this work, a new method was developed to detect MA using pyridine as a dopant in the presence of nicotine by a homemade ion mobility spectrometry. The reduced mobilities of MA and nicotine were measured under the temperatures of the drift tube from 40 to 120 °C and doping with pyridine. The result shows that the temperature of 100 °C is beneficial to resolve the two substances. The concentration of doped pyridine is optimized to be 18 ppm. In this doped experiment, the reaction rate of nicotine is higher than that of MA by measuring the instrumental responses of MA and nicotine. No matter how high the nicotine content is, the interference of nicotine can be eliminated in the detection of MA doped with pyridine. This method is also successfully applied for the determination of MA and nicotine simultaneously in real saliva samples. The limit of detection of MA was measured to be about 0.5 ng/µL. The promising results in this work provide an effective method for on-site detection of MA.

Revealing Metabolic Perturbation Following Heavy Methamphetamine Abuse by Human Hair Metabolomics and Network Analysis.

Methamphetamine (MA) is a highly addictive central nervous system stimulant. Drug addiction is not a static condition but rather a chronically relapsing disorder. Hair is a valuable and stable specimen for chronic toxicological monitoring as it retains toxicants and metabolites. The primary focus of this study was to discover the metabolic effects encompassing diverse pathological symptoms of MA addiction. Therefore, metabolic alterations were investigated in human hair following heavy MA abuse using both targeted and untargeted mass spectrometry and through integrated network analysis. The statistical analyses (t-test, variable importance on projection score, and receiver-operator characteristic curve) demonstrated that 32 metabolites (in targeted metabolomics) as well as 417 and 224 ion features (in positive and negative ionization modes of untargeted metabolomics, respectively) were critically dysregulated. The network analysis showed that the biosynthesis or metabolism of lipids, such as glycosphingolipids, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, and ether lipids, as well as the metabolism of amino acids (glycine, serine and threonine; cysteine and methionine) is affected by heavy MA abuse. These findings reveal crucial metabolic effects caused by MA addiction, with emphasis on the value of human hair as a diagnostic specimen for determining drug addiction, and will aid in identifying robust diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets.

Determination of ketamine, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in human hair by flash evaporation-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.

A rapid and sensitive method utilizing flash evaporation-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (FE-GC/MS) has been developed. The method is applicable to determine ketamine (KET), methamphetamine (MAMP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in human hair. Cut and weighted hair (0.30 mg) was heated at the flash evaporation temperature of 350 °C. KET, MAMP and MDMA were released into a capillary column for GC/MS analysis and produced fragment ions in SIM mode. Validation of the method included evaluation of linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, precision and repeatability. Linearity ranged from 2 to 300 ng/mg for KET in hair and 2 to 200 ng/mg for MAMP and MDMA in hair with the correlation coefficients all greater than 0.998. Limits of detection were 0.7 ng/mg and limits of quantification were 2.0 ng/mg of hair for KET, MAMP and MDMA. The precision ranged from 1.57% to 7.75% for KET, 1.49% to 7.10% for MAMP and 1.84% to 8.31% for MDMA. The recovery ranged from 102.1% to 110.9% for KET, 99.3% to 108.0% for MAMP and 89.5% to 112.6% for MDMA. Six authentic hair samples from known drug abusers and three drug-free hair samples from volunteers who had never used drugs were successfully analyzed. Compared with traditional time-consuming and hair-comsuming pretreatment method, FE-GC/MS was a faster, simpler and low sample consumption method for the determination of KET, MAMP and MDMA in human hair.

Assessment of metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine use during Chinese public holidays.

Metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine are widely used in China. However, the consumption pattern of these substances among the general population during Chinese public holidays may be different. Influent wastewater samples were collected from a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Yingkou, China on public holidays (n = 6) and working days (n = 20) to examine the changes in metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine consumption. The consumption of metformin in the city ranged from 1.94 to 14.4 g d-1 1000 people-1, while that of nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine ranged from 0.46 to 2.18 g d-1 1000 people-1, 31.8-89.8 g d-1 1000 people-1, and 87.0-657 mg d-1 1000 people-1, respectively. The highest consumption of metformin, caffeine, and methamphetamine was observed during the Spring Festival. The results indicated that the consumption of these substances showed almost the same trend and was higher during the Spring Festival, which may be influenced by personal habits and traditional festival reunions. There is a correlation between the consumption of nicotine and caffeine. Moreover, there are correlations between the consumption of metformin and nicotine, caffeine, as well as methamphetamine. The information based on wastewater epidemiology and consumption behavior, suggests that drug use in the region requires more attention or monitoring during holidays.

Determination of New Psychoactive Substances in Whole Blood Using Microwave Fast Derivatization and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry.

The production and consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) has been raising a major concern worldwide. Due to easy access and available information, many NPSs continue to be synthesized with an alarming increase of those available to purchase, despite all the control efforts created. A new analytical method was developed and validated to determine a group of phenethylamines and synthetic cathinones: cathinone, flephedrone, buphedrone, 4-MTA, α-PVP, methylone, 2C-P, ethylone, pentylone, MDPV and bromo-dragonFLY in whole blood. A mixed-mode solid phase extraction was applied to 250 µL of sample, and the extracts were derivatized with fast microwave technique before being analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The validation procedure followed the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Toxicology (SWGTOX) guidelines with parameters that included selectivity, linearity, limits of detection and quantification, intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy, recoveries and stability. The method presented linearity between 5 and 500 ng/mL for cathinone, buphedrone, 4-MTA, methylone, 2C-P and bromo-dragonFLY, 10-500 ng/mL for flephedrone, ethylone, pentylone and MDPV, and 40-500 ng/mL for α-PVP, with determination coefficients above 0.99 for all analytes. Recoveries ranged between 70.3% and 116.6%, and regarding intra- and inter-day precision, the relative mean errors were typically lower than 8.6%. The method was successfully applied to over 100 authentic samples from the Laboratory of Chemistry and Forensic Toxicology, Centre Branch, of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Portugal.

Assessment of contamination levels in methamphetamine-tested properties in New Zealand.

In November 2016, whilst in draft, the New Zealand Standard (NZS8510:2017) for the "Testing and Decontamination of Methamphetamine-Contaminated Properties" considered two acceptable post-decontamination re-occupancy methamphetamine levels; 1.5µg/100cm2 if the contamination was caused by smoking methamphetamine and 0.5µg/100cm2 if the contamination was caused by the manufacture of methamphetamine. In response to this, research carried out at this laboratory included the analysis of data obtained from over a thousand pre-decontamination property test reports with the aim of understanding the variation in the levels of contamination, that could be expected, among the wider New Zealand (contaminated) housing stock. The vast majority of the reports originated from public sector agency properties where methamphetamine was suspected to have been used. Although it could not be ruled-out, none of the properties had been associated with any suspicion of drug production. Thus, a further intention of the study was to assess and portray the levels of contamination that would be expected to be produced through methamphetamine use, commonly smoking. As such, it is expected that the data might be useful from an environmental exposure perspective and inform further research in this area. The assessment also discusses its potential as evidence in criminal cases where there may be discrepancies concerning the source of the methamphetamine contamination in relation to "Use of premises" and associated charges under Section 12 of the Misuse of Drugs Act (New Zealand) 1975. Regardless, the final New Zealand standard, released in June 2017, set a single decontamination level for 'high-use areas' of 1.5µg/100cm2 and a less stringent decontamination level for 'limited-use areas' of 3.8µg/100cm2, with no requirement to determine the origin of the contamination.

Contamination of Homes with Methamphetamine: Is Wipe Sampling Adequate to Determine Risk?

Contamination of domestic dwellings from methamphetamine cooking or smoking is an increasing public health problem in many countries. To evaluate the extent of contamination, sampling generally focusses on the collection of surface wipe samples from walls and other surfaces of a potentially contaminated home. Here, we report the contamination levels of many household materials and items sampled from a home that was suspected to be the premises used to cook methamphetamine, it was then sold, lived in for several years by the new owners and then left unattended for several more years. Although the time since the cooking had taken place was significant (over five years), the levels of contamination were extremely high in both household items that were part of the house when cooking was taking place (blinds, carpets, walls, etc.) and also in articles brought to the house post-cooking (rugs, toys, beds, etc.). Both wipe sampling and analysis of bulk samples indicate that the methamphetamine is not breaking down or being removed and is transferred from contaminated to non-contaminated objects. These results raise questions about the adequacy of characterising contamination and of making decisions about the extent of remediation required based solely on surface wipe samples. Without fully understanding the extent of contamination that is present, not only on surfaces but within the building materials, it is difficult to ensure that the correct and most effective remedial approaches are taken to appropriately determine and address the risks to inhabitants.

The Analysis of Aerosolized Methamphetamine From E-cigarettes Using High Resolution Mass Spectrometry and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry.

The use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigs) has expanded from a nicotine delivery system to a general drug delivery system. The internet is rife with websites, blogs and forums informing users how to modify e-cigs to deliver illicit drugs while maintaining optimal drug delivery of their device. The goal of this study was to qualitatively identify the presence of methamphetamine in the aerosol produced by an e-cig and to quantitatively assess the effect voltage on the concentration of aerosolized methamphetamine. A KangerTech AeroTank electronic cigarette containing a 30, 60 or 120 mg/mL of methamphetamine in 50:50 propylene glycol: vegetable glycerin formulation was used to produce the aerosol. To qualitatively identify aerosolized methamphetamine, the aerosol was generated at 4.3 V, trapped in a simple glass trapping system, extracted using solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and analyzed by high-resolution Direct Analysis in Real Time AccuTOF™ Mass Spectrometry (DART-MS). To assess the effect of voltage on the concentration of aerosolized methamphetamine, the aerosol was generated at 3.9, 4.3 and 4.7 V, trapped and quantified using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS). SPME-DART-MS and SPME-GC-MS demonstrated the aerosolization of methamphetamine. The concentration of aerosolized methamphetamine at 3.9, 4.3 and 4.7 V was not statistically different at 800 ± 600 ng/mL, 800 ± 600 ng/mL and 1,000 ± 800 ng/mL, respectively. The characterization of the vapors produced from e-liquids containing methamphetamine provides an understanding of the dose delivery dynamics of e-cigarettes.

Medición de drogas ilícitas en aguas residuales: estudio piloto en México / Assessing illicit drugs in wastewater: a pilot study in Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Monitorear el consumo de drogas a través de la medición de sus metabolitos en aguas residuales. Material y métodos: Se obtuvieron muestras de 31 plantas de tratamiento de agua residual y de 95 sitios con poblaciones específicas (38 escuelas, 42 unidades de tratamiento de adicciones y 15 centros de readaptación social). Usando cromatografía líquida de ultra-alta resolución, se midieron nueve metabolitos de seis drogas. Resultados: Ocho de nueve metabolitos de drogas fueron identificados en aguas residuales. Los metabolitos de marihuana (THC-COOH), cocaína (benzoilecgonina) y metanfetamina fueron identificados en escuelas, centros de readaptación social y de tratamiento de adicciones. En Nuevo Laredo, Culiacán y Torreón se encontraron los consumos per cápita más elevados de cocaína, marihuana, anfetamina y metanfetamina. Conclusiones: El monitoreo del uso de drogas a través de aguas residuales es factible en México y podría constituir un sistema de vigilancia para identificar cambios de su consumo en el tiempo.

Abstract: Objective: Monitor drug use through wastewater metabolite measurement. Materials and methods: Wastewater samples were obtained from 31 wastewater treatment plants and 95 sites with specific populations (38 schools, 42 units of addiction treatment and 15 penitentiaries). Using ultra high liquid chromatography, we measured nine metabolites from six drugs. Results: Eight out of nine drug metabolites were identified in the samples. Marijuana (THC-COOH), cocaine (benzoylecgonine) and methamphetamine were identified in schools, centers of addiction treatment and penitentiaries. Nuevo Laredo, Culiacan and Torreon had the highest consumption of cocaine, marijuana, amphetamine and methamphetamine. Conclusions: Monitoring drug use through wastewater is feasible in Mexico and could constitute a surveillance system to identify changes in the time.

Lab-made solid phase microextraction phases for off line extraction and direct mass spectrometry analysis: Evaluating the extraction parameters.

The analyses of drugs and metabolites in complex matrices have been widely studied in recent years. However, due to high levels endogenous compounds and matrix complexity, these analyses require a sample pre-treatment step. To this aim, two lab-made extractive phases were integrated to probe electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (PESI-MS) technique for direct analysis of illicit drugs in biological fluids and phorbol esters in Jatropha curcas extract. The polypyrrole (PPy) phase was electropolymerized onto a platinum wire surface by cyclic voltammetry. The molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was synthesized and adhered onto a stainless-steel needle with epoxy resin. The PPy-PESI-MS method showed to be linear in a concentration range from 1 to 500 µg L-1, with accuracy values between -2.1 and 14%, and precision values between 0.8 and 10.8%. The MIP-PESI-MS method showed to be linear in a concentration range from 0.9 to 30 mg L-1, with accuracy values between -1.6 and -15.3%, and precision values between 4.1 and 13.5%.

Analysis of N,N-dimethylamphetamine in wastewater - a pyrolysis marker and synthesis impurity of methamphetamine.

The increased availability of high purity crystalline methamphetamine (MA) in Australia raised concerns because of high dosages and its potential consumption through inhalation. The present work investigates the possibility of using wastewater levels of N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA), a pyrolysis by-product, as an indirect indicator of MA smoking. A dedicated liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS) method was set up to detect and quantify DMA in wastewater samples. Wastewater samples were collected from 8 locations across Australia during the period 2011-2016. Data about the abundance of DMA in MA seizures as well as in residues from drug paraphernalia were obtained from forensic laboratories in Australia. DMA/MA ratios measured in wastewater ranged from 0.0001 to 0.09 (median 0.007). DMA/MA ratios in bulk seizures are generally below 0.0025, with a median value of 0.0004, whilst residues in paraphernalia ranged from 0.031 to 3.37. DMA/MA ratios in wastewater decreased between 2011 and 2016, in parallel to an increase in MA loads. Furthermore, wastewater analyses highlighted a strong positive correlation between DMA/MA ratios and per capita MA use (Pearson's correlation ρ= 0.61, p-value <0.001). Nonetheless, geographical specificities could be highlighted between the investigated locations. The obtained data could help authorities detect hot spots of drug use as well as to plan specific intervention campaigns to tackle the issue. In future, simultaneous analysis of DMA and MA in both wastewater and seizures could improve our understanding about MA use and its consumption patterns.

Association between cytochrome P450 2D6 polymorphisms and body fluid methamphetamine concentrations in Japanese forensic autopsy cases.

Methamphetamine (MA) is an illicit stimulant that affects the central nervous system. Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) plays an important role in MA metabolism. Numerous allelic variants confer substantial variation in CYP2D6 activity among individuals. In the present study, we examined the frequencies of CYP2D6 alleles, including CYP2D6*1, *2, *4, *5, *10, *14A, *14B, *18, and *36, and multiplication, in 82 forensic autopsy cases of MA abusers and 567 autopsy cases in which MA was not detected (controls). Ultrarapid metabolizer (UM), extensive metabolizer (EM), intermediate metabolizer (IM), and poor metabolizer (PM) phenotypes were predicted from CYP2D6 genotypes. Of MA abusers, 64 subjects were predicted to be EM, 17 were IM, and 1 was UM. No MA abuser had the predicted PM phenotype. No significant differences in CYP2D6 phenotype frequencies were found between MA abusers and controls. MA and amphetamine (AMP) concentrations were measured in the right heart blood, left heart blood, peripheral external iliac blood, urine, pericardial fluid, and bone marrow of MA abusers. MA concentrations in urine and bone marrow were significantly higher in IM than in EM. AMP concentration was not associated with CYP2D6 phenotype in any body fluid. These results suggest that the MA concentration in body fluids is influenced by CYP2D6 phenotypes in the Japanese population.

Two Case Studies Illustrating a Shared Decision-Making Approach to Illicit Methamphetamine Use and Breastfeeding.

Crystal methamphetamine (MA) is a potent psycho-stimulant that is increasingly used worldwide. It is highly addictive, is often made in clandestine laboratories, and can cause serious health issues in adults. Health professionals caring for women in the perinatal period must counsel women about the health risks to infants if they are exposed to MA in breast milk. Most guidelines recommend that women who have current or recent MA use do not breastfeed. This article explores approaches to breastfeeding advice in the context of MA use. Women who have made lifestyle changes, engaged well with services in the antenatal period, and are committed to drug counseling services after discharge from hospital may be supported to breastfeed if they are assessed as safe to do so. The importance of assessing each woman individually when developing infant feeding plans throughout the perinatal period is advocated.

The persistence of illicit drug smoke residues and their recovery from common household surfaces.

Third-hand smoke is the residue remaining on surfaces during smoking events. It is composed of particles and vapours that form upon heating. The phrase 'third-hand smoke' is primarily used to describe nicotine and other chemicals from cigarettes, but any residues formed from the smoking of various substances could be classified similarly. There has been an increasing body of research on third-hand smoke from cigarettes in the last decade, but little has been done in regards to understanding the persistence of particles and vapours from illicit drugs. In this work, small samples of cocaine and methamphetamine were volatilized to produce an illicit drug smoke that was collected onto various surface materials and left exposed to ambient conditions over 672 h (four weeks). Chemical analyses by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry of residues on silicon, plastic, laminate, and artificial leather surfaces indicated a rapid decrease in recovery of the parent molecule, with varied formation of decomposition products over the first 168 h of exposure. Measurable amounts of the parent molecule were still present after 672 h, exhibiting a strong persistence of these drugs on various household materials. This is important in a forensic science context, as third-hand smoke residues could provide a viable source of trace evidence previously not utilized. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Comparison of pharmaceutical, illicit drug, alcohol, nicotine and caffeine levels in wastewater with sale, seizure and consumption data for 8 European cities.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring the scale of pharmaceuticals, illicit and licit drugs consumption is important to assess the needs of law enforcement and public health, and provides more information about the different trends within different countries. Community drug use patterns are usually described by national surveys, sales and seizure data. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been shown to be a reliable approach complementing such surveys. METHOD: This study aims to compare and correlate the consumption estimates of pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, alcohol, nicotine and caffeine from wastewater analysis and other sources of information. Wastewater samples were collected in 2015 from 8 different European cities over a one week period, representing a population of approximately 5 million people. Published pharmaceutical sale, illicit drug seizure and alcohol, tobacco and caffeine use data were used for the comparison. RESULTS: High agreement was found between wastewater and other data sources for pharmaceuticals and cocaine, whereas amphetamines, alcohol and caffeine showed a moderate correlation. methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and nicotine did not correlate with other sources of data. Most of the poor correlations were explained as part of the uncertainties related with the use estimates and were improved with other complementary sources of data. CONCLUSIONS: This work confirms the promising future of WBE as a complementary approach to obtain a more accurate picture of substance use situation within different communities. Our findings suggest further improvements to reduce the uncertainties associated with both sources of information in order to make the data more comparable.