Is Gold Yellow? Plant Dyes and Gold-Making in the Ancient Chemical Arts.

Ancient Greek colour terminology captures brightness, light, and brilliance rather than clear-cut portions of the chromatic spectrum, as scholars agree today. This also applies to the rich semantic of yellow, which we investigate starting from a philosophical and theoretical perspective. We then shift our focus to Graeco-Roman technical writings dealing with alchemical dyes, cosmetics, and other crafts that made use of the same set of ingredients and colouring substances. We compile a complete list of yellow-dyeing plants used in antiquity, which will update and enlarge the lists currently available in secondary literature on the topic, such as the seminal catalogue by Robert J. Forbes. Drawing on these data and on laboratory reconstructions, we address two main questions. First, which shades of yellow were usually associated with the colour of gold, and how were these tints produced by ancient craftsmen and alchemists? And second, how did these procedures contribute to the ancient discourse on the colour of gold and its artificial reproduction?

The kinesthetic diagnosis in a homeric item of pathological heartbeat: An overview in the history of ancient greek medicine.

The Iliad, by the Greek poet Homer, is a precious mine of examples of war traumatology. In the specific case of spear wounds in the chest, the death of the Trojan warrior Alcathous is particularly interesting from the point of view of the history of medicine and the evolution of cardiology and knowledge of the heart at the time of ancient Greece. In particular this paper aims to evidence and reconstruct the main anatomical and physiological knowledge of the heart at that time. Indeed, a historical-linguistic analysis of the Greek text prompts some reflections and thoughts on the heartbeat in pathological conditions and on the function of the heart as a hematopoietic organ. Furthermore, Homer's account is a critical text that highlights the relevance of the use of the senses in the ancient description of nosological pictures and it allows us an interesting and suggestive approach to reconstruction from the historical and historiographical point of view.

Milestones in the History of Pediatric Surgery During the Byzantine Times

During the Byzantine Times, medicine and surgery developed as Greek physicians continued to practice in Constantinople. Healing methods were common for both adults and children, and pediatrics as a medical specialty did not exist. Already Byzantine hospitals became institutions to dispense medical services, rather than shelters for the homeless, which included doctors and nurses for those who suffered from the disease. A major improvement in the status of hospitals as medical centers took place in this period, and physicians were called archiatroi. Several sources prove that archiatroi were still functioning in the late sixth century and long afterward, but now as xenon doctors. Patients were averse to surgery due to the incidence of complications. The hagiographical literature repeated allusions to doctors. Concerns about children with a surgical disease often led parents to seek miraculous healings achieved by Christian Protectors - Saints. This paper is focused on three eminent Byzantine physicians and surgeons, Oribasius, Aetius of Amida, Paul of Aegina, who dealt with pediatric operations and influenced the European Medicine for centuries to come. We studied historical and theological sources in order to present a comprehensive picture of the curative techniques used for pediatric surgical diseases during the Byzantine Times.

Cataract couching and the goat's eye.

At the start of the third century, a story told by Claudius Aelianus, Leonidas of Alexandria and pseudo-Galen held that couching originated when a goat with cataract punctured its eye with a thorn. The significance of this story is unknown. We reviewed Graeco-Roman texts to identify the relevance of the goat to the eye. In the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen, the goat's eye was an eye with intermediate brightness or colour. A dark brown eye with a black pupil was healthy and required no treatment. A bright glaukos eye, with extensive corneal edema or scarring, was not amenable to couching. An eye with a white cataract behind an undilated pupil would appear to have an intermediate brightness and was potentially amenable to couching. The origin myth probably arose when an instructor explained that couching works best for a goat's eye, that is, an eye with intermediate brightness.

Michael Constantine Psellus (1020-1105 AD) and his definition of strabismus.

Strabismus was a known eye misalignment since the Hippocratic era (ca 5th century BC). Hippocrates and his followers were the first to introduce the hypothesis of a hereditary condition. Many ancient Greek physicians like Galen (ca 2nd AD) provided several definitions, while Paul of Aegina (625-690 AD) was the scholar who introduced a method to treat it. Paul used a full face mask and an oil lamb to guide the eyeballs toward the desired direction. It seems that this approach endured for centuries to come. During 11th century AD in Constantinople, the Byzantine scholar and politician Michael Constantine Psellus (ca 1020-1105 AD) composed a series of philosophical, religious, political and scientific treatises. Among his work stands a medical iambic didactic poem of 1732 lines, in which he had mentioned strabismus. Although he was not an oculist, he had managed to define strabismus. His definition was noted as such, "Strabismus is caused by a spasm of the bodies which move (the eye balls) and the oblique tendency of the muscles". Psellus was aware of the knowledge of the past and recorded what was still valid at that era, presenting a memorable definition. As his reference was completely neglected from the medical bibliography, our study aims to add him in the scientific chain of those who understood this disorder. This study aims to compose Psellus biography, present ancient Greek and Byzantine ophthalmology's opinion concerning strabismus and note Psellus' definition. The TLG and MedLine/PubMed databases were searched and the terms "strabismus" and "Psellus" were used as key words.

The Hippocratic Method of Surgical Cauterization for the Tumescence Spleen in the Rare "Spetses Syndrome".

Spleen in antiquity was considered by the Hippocratic medicine as a viscerous organ of spongy character, which could clear human body of the black bile. According to the Hippocratic doctrine of the 4 humors, black bile could cause a series of diseases. Both the anatomical position and shape of the spleen were also recognized. In the case of a splenic hardening, with simultaneous augmentation of its dimensions and dermal ulceration and/or splenic abscess, some interventions were proposed. Thus, herbal medicine, phlebotomy, and minimal surgery with local cauterization were applied for treatment, to confront a disease that was considered serious but not fatal. The Hippocratic physicians encountered various spleen diseases and among them they most probably confronted a rare splenic pathological entity, named centuries later as "Spetses syndrome," a rare type of thalassemia of the Spetses island of Saronikos Gulf. Although the approach seems in modern terms rather primitive, the ancient Greek medico-philosophers most likely understood the significance of the spleen.

Galen's Contribution to Head and Neck Surgery.

The historical relevance of Galen has always been very high and his works have exerted a profound influence on medical thought for more than 1,300 years. This could be the main reason why his surgical expertise is often neglected. This brief study focuses on the contribution of this distinguished physician to head and neck surgery and it shows that Galen's surgical experience is well documented in his work.

Aristotle for nursing.

This article aims: (1) to introduce the wider philosophy of Aristotle to nurses and healthcare practitioners; (2) to show that Aristotle's philosophical system is an interdependent whole; and (3) to defend its plausibility and usefulness despite its ancient and alien origins. Aristotle's system can be set out as a hierarchy, with metaphysics at the top and methodology running throughout. Beneath metaphysics are the sciences, with theoretical, practical and productive (or craft) sciences in hierarchical order. This hierarchy does not imply that, say, metaphysics is superior to biology or nursing, but rather that metaphysics can be understood without reference to the other two but, as we shall see, not vice versa. Two themes run through Aristotelian philosophy. The first is Aristotle's method of inquiry, central to which is that our starting point is not pure empirical data, but rather current puzzles; complementing this method is a realist philosophy. The second theme is teleology, the understanding of action in the world in terms of ends, as when we say a plant grows roots to reach water and nutrients. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: Good health is the good functioning of the material aspect of humans; flourishing is good functioning of humans per se. The goals of nursing, which are based on health, are subsumed by the overall human goal of flourishing, and this helps us to understand and set boundaries to health care. Two examples illustrate this. The first is that mental illness is strongly within the purview of nursing and health care whereas bad decisions, such as smoking, are only marginally so. The second is ethics, where it is argued that the attempt to describe ethical decision-making as in addition to and separate from the decisions made within nursing and health care itself cannot be sustained.

Pathfinders in oncology from ancient times to the end of the Middle Ages.

This commentary highlights the onset and progression of the diagnosis and treatment of cancer from ancient times to the 15th century. During the preparation of this synoptic review of the lives and contributions to oncology of 7 ancient physicians, it became clear that despite separation by centuries, ethnicity, and religion, they had many things in common. For example, with the exception of Chauliac, all were born into wealthy families, had an excellent education in the liberal arts and sciences, and were mentored by outstanding teachers. After they became physicians, they traveled extensively, were polyglots, were sponsored by influential individuals, had inquisitive minds, searched for the true nature of diseases, and were proud to share the results of their observations with others. Except for Galen, all of them were kind and well-mannered individuals. They cared with sincere dedication for the poor and those who had untreatable disease, including cancer. Although their understanding of cancer was limited, they were deeply concerned about the neglect and hopelessness of cancer patients. They were aware of their shortcomings in offering effective treatment beyond the surgical excision of early cancers. For advanced cancers, they had nothing to give beyond palliative care with herbals and minerals. All physicians who care for cancer patients owe these pioneer physicians, whatever their shortcomings, an inexpressible debt for their attempts to cure cancer. Cancer 2016;122:1638-46. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

"It may not cure you, it may not save your life, but it will help you".

In the modern world, we are experiencing an epidemiological shift represented by the increasing prevalence of chronic diseases relative to that of acute diseases: more people are living longer, with more diseases, than ever before in human history. How are we to understand and to respond to this change? A study of provision of cancer treatment in Western Australia, especially among Indigenous populations, can illuminate ways in which healthcare providers and societies might better understand the treatment of chronic disease: healthcare providers should take care to appreciate patient perspectives and beliefs about disease aetiology and treatment. Consideration of treatment of disease in the ancient Graeco-Roman world supports the view that effective healing and maintenance of patient wellbeing occurs when healers communicate clearly with their patients about disease and treatment progression, and when healers are open-minded about patients' utilisation of multiple treatment modalities.

Glaucoma and the Origins of Its Name.

PURPOSE: To identify the origins of the name of the disease Glaucoma. METHODS: Ancient Greek medical literature, Homeric poems, and ancient Greek religion and art were examined. RESULTS: The roots of the name Glaucoma could be traced back to Homeric times. Ancient Greek physicians following the Hippocratic tradition preferred the use of the terms Hypochysis or Hypochyma for the same disease. This fact indicates that the older term Glaucoma did not fulfill strict medical criteria, but had a long history connected to superstition, which the rational ancient Greek physician tried to overcome using terms derived from their fundamental principal of humoral pathology. CONCLUSIONS: In ancient Greek medical literature, Glaucoma had a significant place among ocular diseases. The origin of its name could be traced back to Homeric times and could be connected to the ancient belief of a primitive folk about the apotropaic role of animals against diseases, which in this case is represented by the superstitious role of the owl.

Injuries to the head and neck in Homer's Odyssey.

The Odyssey and the Iliad are the most prominent works of ancient Greek epic poetry, and we have retrieved injuries to the head and neck mentioned in the Odyssey. We studied the texts both in ancient Greek and the translations in modern Greek and English and searched for references to trauma to the head and neck. We recorded the injuries, the attacker and defender, the weapons used, the site, and the result. There were 11 injuries of the head and neck, nine of which were fatal.

Doctors and baldness: a five thousand year old challenge.

The history of trichology follows a thread that continually intersects with that of the history of medicine in general. Even Hippocrates believed that the approach to baldness should be of a medical nature. This confrontation between doctors and hair loss, which has lasted for five thousand years, begins with the invocations of the head physicians in the Egyptian era and ends with the recent institution of postgraduate Master's degrees at Faculties of Medicine and Surgery. The biggest names in medicine concerned themselves with trichology beginning with Hippocrates, who dealt with the topic in his most famous work: the Aphorisms. Even the most celebrated doctors of the Roman era, such as Galen and Pliny the Elder, did not disdain considering hair loss, leaving important scientific contributions before passing on the baton to their distinguished colleagues of the Byzantine Empire. The narrative then flows through the most prestigious institutions of the Middle Ages, such as the Salerno School of Medicine and the Siena Accademia del Fisiocritici where, at the end of the 1600s, the distinguished anatomical describer Marcello Malpighi also taught trichology, and left his contribution to "Hair Science" with a fine description of the hair follicle in the pages of his Opera Posthuma. At the turn of the late Middle Ages and the early modern era, barbers formed the primordial nucleus of surgery and at the same time became the ones to concern themselves with hair loss. In the 1800s, several doctors published the first texts dealing with the anatomy and physiology of the hair and taking into account the principal forms of alopecia, but at the therapeutic level did not yet propose anything scientifically valid. Until a few decades ago trichology still lent itself to various commercial speculations. It was not until the twentieth century that the pathogenetic mechanisms of baldness were clarified in a scientific manner. With this knowledge, the pharmaceutical industry has been able, then, to develop the necessary drugs, and doctors have become willing and able to reappropriate treatments to counteract conditions that lead to hair loss.

Colchis - Iberian Medicine or Cura Mediana

This paper reviews the ancient traditions about Colchis. It considers the legends of the Argonauts and the Golden Fleece, of Medea and the plant lore which is well established in Georgia. Many remedies and poisons are native to the area. Hippocrates is said to have visited Colchis to study local healing traditions, describing the country, with its rich flora and fauna as well as its diseases. Thus, Medea can be considered a pioneer of cosmetics, haematology, surgery and toxicology leading the way for the development of modern medicine.

Alexandria, An emporium in the Silk Road, and the Traffic of Unusual Medicines.

In Ancient times, an active trade of exotic and peculiar drugs tool place along the Silk Road. Coming through China, India, Central Asia, Armenia, including Colchis, Arabia, Nubia as far as Greece and Rome, it was centered during Ptolemaic and Roman times in Alexandria, the world Emporium, remarkably advanced in scientific medicine. Physicians required a variety of active ingredients for their pharmacotherapy, following various related branches of medicine. These included: 1) herbal remedies: including toxic plants 2) polypharmacy: missing together all kind of drugs 3) dreckapotheke or copropharmacy, employing unclean materials 4) organic therapy, using exotic or domestic animal products 5) aromatherapy, lined to essential oils and perfumes 6) 'medical astrology and botany', regarding the laws of sympathy in the natural world 7) alchemy and magic medicine: with occult knowledge

Whistleblowing in medicine and in Homer's Iliad.

'Thinking with Homer', or drawing creatively on themes and scenes from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, can help us to better understand medical culture and practice. One current, pressing, issue is the role of the whistleblower, who recognises and exposes perceived poor practice or ethical transgressions that compromise patient care and safety. Once, whistleblowers were ostracised where medical culture closed ranks. However, in a new era of public accountability, medicine looks to formally embrace whistleblowing to the point that not reporting transgressions can now constitute a transgression of professionalism. Where medical students identify with the history and traditions of medical culture, they inevitably find themselves in situations of conflicting loyalties if they encounter senior clinicians behaving unprofessionally. What are the implications of facing these dilemmas for students in terms of role modelling and shaping of character as a doctor, and how might a study of Homer help with such dilemmas? We suggest that a close reading of an opening scene in Homer's the Iliad can help us to better appreciate such ethical dilemmas. We link this with the early Greek tradition of parrhesia or 'truth telling', where frankly speaking out against perceived injustice is encouraged as resistance to power and inappropriate use of authority. We encourage medical educators to openly discuss perceived ethical dilemmas with medical students, and medicine as a culture to examine its conscience in a transition from an authoritarian to an 'open' society, where whistleblowing becomes as acceptable and necessary as good hygiene on the wards.

Psicología de la culpa en la Grecia Antigua / Psychology of guilt in Ancient Greece

La noción moderna de culpa entendida como conflicto valorativo (moral) es una categoría psicológica construida históricamente. Los griegos de la época arcaica y clásica carecían de la experiencia de la culpa tal y como la sentimos ahora. En este trabajo se discute acerca de la problemática de la culpa en la antigua Grecia y de las condiciones que hicieron posible su nacimiento y funcionamiento. Entre estas destacan la moralización de la até; originariamente entendida como locura irracional, y transformada en la época arcaica en castigo de los dioses y, el aumento del gradiente de libertad personal en detrimento de los poderes religiosos, lo cual se atisba en el siglo V a. C. en Sófocles y Eurípides, y sobre todo en Aristóteles en el siglo IV a. C. Finalmente se presenta una línea de interpretación sobre el modo en que las prácticas históricas asociadas a la noción de culpa atraviesan o subsisten en la clínica y en la práctica psicoterapéutica...

The modern notion of guilt, understood as evaluative conflict (moral) is a psychological historically constructed category. The Greeks of the archaic and classical period lacked the experience of guilt as we feel it now. This paper discuss about the problem of guilt in ancient Greece and about the conditions that made possible his birth and operation. Between these they emphasize the moralization of até it; originally understood as a irrational madness, and transformed in the archaic period in punishment of the gods, and, increasing the gradient of personal freedom to the detriment of the religious powers, which is emerging in the 5th century B.C. in Sophocles and Euripides, and especially in Aristotle in the 4th century B.C. Finally we present a line of interpretation about how historical practices associated of the notion of guilt are crossing the clinic and psychotherapeutic work.