Vice-versa: The iron trade in the western Roman Empire between Gaul and the Mediterranean.

Starting from the second century BC, with the fast expansion of the Roman Empire, iron production and consumption developed exponentially in north-western Europe. This rapid growth naturally led to an increase in trade, that still remains to be studied encompassing a broad scope, so as to not neglect long-distance exchanges. This is today possible by taking advantage of the progress made in the past 40 years in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. Cargoes of iron bars recovered from a group of 23 wrecks located off the coast of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône, France), opposite an old branch of the Rhône River, constitute a rich opportunity to examine this trade, by comparing the slag inclusions trapped in iron bars to primary slag from the six main ironmaking areas in Gaul. Based on a trace element analysis of these inclusions and this slag, we suggest that ships travelled down the Rhône carrying iron produced in Wallonia (Belgium), while others sailed up the Rhône transporting iron produced in Montagne Noire (Aude, France).

The History of Wound Healing.

Since the dawn of humanity, wounds have afflicted humans, and healers have held responsibility for treating them. This article tracks the evolution of wound care from antiquity to the present, highlighting the roles of surgeons, scientists, culture, and society in the ever-changing management of traumatic and iatrogenic injuries.

Cataract couching and the goat's eye.

At the start of the third century, a story told by Claudius Aelianus, Leonidas of Alexandria and pseudo-Galen held that couching originated when a goat with cataract punctured its eye with a thorn. The significance of this story is unknown. We reviewed Graeco-Roman texts to identify the relevance of the goat to the eye. In the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen, the goat's eye was an eye with intermediate brightness or colour. A dark brown eye with a black pupil was healthy and required no treatment. A bright glaukos eye, with extensive corneal edema or scarring, was not amenable to couching. An eye with a white cataract behind an undilated pupil would appear to have an intermediate brightness and was potentially amenable to couching. The origin myth probably arose when an instructor explained that couching works best for a goat's eye, that is, an eye with intermediate brightness.

Latitude, urbanization, age, and sex as risk factors for vitamin D deficiency disease in the Roman Empire.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of the study are to investigate the effects of latitude, settlement type, age, and sex on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency disease in the Roman Empire using human skeletal remains from cemetery sites (1st to 6th cent. AD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data from 2,787 individuals (1,143 subadults, 1,644 adults) from 18 cemeteries associated with 15 different settlements in the Mediterranean and north-western Europe were analyzed. Vitamin D deficiency disease (rickets, osteomalacia) was identified using standard paleopathological criteria. Multivariate statistical analysis was used analyze the effects of the variables of interest on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of rickets in subadults (<20 years) was 5.7%, and 3.2% of adults showed osteomalacia and/or residual rickets. There was a positive association between rickets in subadults and latitude, with numerous cases of rickets among infants. There was no general association with sex or settlement type, although an elevated prevalence of rickets was observed at a cemetery associated with a settlement (Ostia, Italy), which had multi-storey buildings. DISCUSSION: The association of rickets with latitude may reflect care practices that, in more northerly locations where solar radiation is less intense, placed infants at increased risk of insufficient sunlight exposure to permit adequate vitamin D biosynthesis. The elevated level of vitamin D deficiency at Ostia may reflect, at least in part, the lack of sunlight due to dense occupation of multi-storey blocks that prevented direct sunlight from reaching living quarters and the streets between these closely spaced buildings.

Paleopathological evidence of paranasal lesions: Two cases of frontal sinus osteomata from Imperial Rome.

The archaeological excavations carried out in 1999 in the Collatina necropolis of the Roman Imperial Age (1st-3rd centuries AD) (Rome, Italy) discovered the skeletal remains of two adult males with evidence of paranasal lesions. Both individuals showed postmortem damage in the frontal bone, through which it was possible to macroscopically detect an oblong new bone formation. In both specimens, radiological examination of the defects' morphology showed new pediculated-based bone formations. Radiology also confirmed the presence of benign osseous masses arising from the right frontal sinus and interpreted as osteomata. Their dimensions did not exceed 10 mm, so that mechanical complications and compression of the adjacent structures could be ruled out. The osteomata of paranasal sinuses are rarely reported in paleopathology, since they can be discovered only incidental to bone breakage or radiography. Hence, the evaluation of their occurrence in past populations represents an important challenge. The two cases presented here show direct and rare evidence of frontal sinus osteomata dating back to the Roman Imperial Age.

Intestinal parasites from the 2nd-5th century AD latrine in the Roman Baths at Sagalassos (Turkey).

The aim of this research was to determine the species of intestinal parasite present in a Roman Imperial period population in Asia Minor, and to use this information to improve our understanding of health in the eastern Mediterranean region in Roman times. We analyzed five samples from the latrines of the Roman bath complex at Sagalassos, Turkey. Fecal biomarker analysis using 5ß-stanols has indicated the feces were of human origin. The eggs of roundworm (Ascaris) were identified in all five samples using microscopy, and the cysts of the protozoan Giardia duodenalis (which causes dysentery) were identified multiple times in one sample using ELISA. The positive G. duodenalis result at Sagalassos is particularly important as it represents the earliest reliable evidence for this parasite in the Old World (i.e. outside the Americas). As both these species of parasite are spread through the contamination of food and water by fecal material, their presence implies that Roman sanitation technologies such as latrines and public baths did not break the cycle of reinfection in this population. We then discuss the evidence for roundworm in the writings of the Roman physician Galen, who came from Pergamon, another town in western Asia Minor.

Pathfinders in oncology from ancient times to the end of the Middle Ages.

This commentary highlights the onset and progression of the diagnosis and treatment of cancer from ancient times to the 15th century. During the preparation of this synoptic review of the lives and contributions to oncology of 7 ancient physicians, it became clear that despite separation by centuries, ethnicity, and religion, they had many things in common. For example, with the exception of Chauliac, all were born into wealthy families, had an excellent education in the liberal arts and sciences, and were mentored by outstanding teachers. After they became physicians, they traveled extensively, were polyglots, were sponsored by influential individuals, had inquisitive minds, searched for the true nature of diseases, and were proud to share the results of their observations with others. Except for Galen, all of them were kind and well-mannered individuals. They cared with sincere dedication for the poor and those who had untreatable disease, including cancer. Although their understanding of cancer was limited, they were deeply concerned about the neglect and hopelessness of cancer patients. They were aware of their shortcomings in offering effective treatment beyond the surgical excision of early cancers. For advanced cancers, they had nothing to give beyond palliative care with herbals and minerals. All physicians who care for cancer patients owe these pioneer physicians, whatever their shortcomings, an inexpressible debt for their attempts to cure cancer. Cancer 2016;122:1638-46. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Alexandria, An emporium in the Silk Road, and the Traffic of Unusual Medicines.

In Ancient times, an active trade of exotic and peculiar drugs tool place along the Silk Road. Coming through China, India, Central Asia, Armenia, including Colchis, Arabia, Nubia as far as Greece and Rome, it was centered during Ptolemaic and Roman times in Alexandria, the world Emporium, remarkably advanced in scientific medicine. Physicians required a variety of active ingredients for their pharmacotherapy, following various related branches of medicine. These included: 1) herbal remedies: including toxic plants 2) polypharmacy: missing together all kind of drugs 3) dreckapotheke or copropharmacy, employing unclean materials 4) organic therapy, using exotic or domestic animal products 5) aromatherapy, lined to essential oils and perfumes 6) 'medical astrology and botany', regarding the laws of sympathy in the natural world 7) alchemy and magic medicine: with occult knowledge

Greek and Roman patients under Galen's gaze: a doctor at the crossroads of two cultures.

Born in Pergamum in 129 A.D., Galen received his first medical training in his native city and then continued his studies in Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria. He began his medical career in Asia Minor, treating peasants and performing surgery on the gladiatorial troupe that worked as slaves under the high priest upon his return to Pergamum in 157. Subsequently, he settled in Rome, where he lived most of his life and treated many prominent patients. The aim of this paper is to explore how Galen viewed his Asian and Roman patients and how he adapted his practice and medical procedures based not only on each patient's social and economic status, but on his or her intellectual acumen and customs as well, through proposing an intelligent and original synthesis of Asian and Roman lifestyles.

What the ancients knew of the fatal anatomic consequences of wounding of the lower thorax.

One of the most important lessons concerning the relevance of human anatomy to surgical diagnosis to be taught to medical students and first-year surgical residents concerns their sometimes poorly understood relationship of the structure of the lower thoracic cavity to the organs within the upper abdominal cavity. To make this indelibly clear, in surgical anatomic and clinical lectures given during the past 20 years, I have chosen to present the earliest Biblical examples of the ancient's knowledge of this critical relationship as regards wounds of the thorax specifically given to injure the liver and thus to produce a rapid and certain death. The first two concern the technique of assassination used by the warring factions of the House of King Saul and the followers of the House of David, which resulted in his succeeding to the kingship of Israel after the death of King Saul in the 10th century BC. The second example is the coup de grâce administered in 30 AD to the crucified Jesus by a Roman centurion to hasten His death. In all three cases, the evidence, in the first two cases explicit and in the third strongly implied, is that the executioners knew that a stab wound of the lower thorax on the right would lead to a rapid death by exsanguination because "the liver was suspended there." The importance of this understanding, made indelible by these examples discussed herein, is to insure the recognition by any medical student or surgical resident that any penetrating wound of the lower thorax may imply a much more serious injury to an intra-abdominal organ, and this must be rapidly and fully investigated.

Collyria seals in the Roman Empire.

Roman seals associated with collyria (Latin expression for eye drops/washes and lotions for eye maintenance) provide valuable information about eye care in the antiquity. These small, usually stone-made pieces bore engravings with the names of eye doctors and also the collyria used to treat an eye disease. The collyria seals have been found all over the Roman empire and Celtic territories in particular and were usually associated with military camps. In Hispania (Iberian Peninsula), only three collyria seals have been found. These findings speak about eye care in this ancient Roman province as well as about of the life of the time. This article takes a look at the utility and social significance of the collyria seals and seeks to give an insight in the ophthalmological practice of in the Roman Empire.

[Roman medical instruments from Lower Moesia]. / Instruments medicaux romains provenus de la province Mísie inférieure.

To elucidate the evolution of society over time, ancient medicine is a very interesting and important researching field. Archaeological discoveries, such as the objects described by this article, but other ancient sources, also, are able to provide a complex framework of medical practice in Roman times. The geographic area that we have like target in this material is the province of Lower Moesia, which includes the territory between Danube and Black Sea (Romanian Dobrodja) and northern Bulgaria. In the present study we present nine ancient medical instruments, from a private collection: two tweezers, two ear probes, a probe-spatula, a probe-spoon, a spoon for pharmacy and two fragments of some kind of hooks used in surgical operations. Most likely, we have a mixed medical kit with tools used in general medicine, surgery, in preparation of the pharmaceutical treatments, but very possible, also, in cosmetic practices. Publication of these archaeological materials is, in addition to an extra page in the history of ancient medicine, a pretext for stepping up in a research field that, in other regions of the former Roman Empire, it is a great interest for researchers.

Cancer and Roman medicine.

In this article we present the opinions of some eminent Roman physicians about cancer. We emphasize the points of view of Galen, famous Roman physician of Greek origin whose doctrines dominated medicine for more than 15 centuries. We then cite the opinions about cancer of some other outstanding physicians of that period like Celsus, Pliny, Leonidis of Alexandria, Aretaeus of Cappadocia, Soranus of Ephesus etc. We also quote some examples of cancer and we describe what those physicians thought of its pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment.

The alchemy of jargon: etymologies of urologic neologisms-part 4: the history of histological nomenclature.

BACKGROUND: As the scientific community is increasingly severed from the study of linguistics, the underlying significance of their common technical words is becoming blurred. This article will focus on the genesis of terminology in the field of Histology. METHODS: These notes will give a detailed background of the history of technical terms, including how they came into being, whence they were derived, and how they impacted the scientific community through the ages. RESULTS: In this installment, following terms are analyzed: organ, gland, tissue, membrane, acinus, fibroblast, epithelium, and endothelium. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of the history and significance of scientific terms common to the urological community works toward a fortification of their power by offering a reminder of their origins.

The alchemy of jargon: Etymologies of urologic neologisms. Number 5: oncology and its vocabulary.

BACKGROUND: As the scientific community is increasingly severed from the study of linguistics, the underlying significance of their common technical words is becoming blurred. This article will focus on the genesis of terminology in the field of Oncology. METHODS: These notes will give a detailed background of the history of technical terms, including how they came into being, whence they were derived, and how they impacted the scientific community through the ages. RESULTS: In this installment, following terms are analyzed: Oncology, Cancer, Carcinoma, Metastasis, Neoplasm, Malignant, and Benign. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of the history and significance of scientific terms common to the urological community works towards a fortification of their power by offering a reminder of their origins. Prostate 69: 1369-1371, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The ancient technique of "gastrorrhaphy".

OBJECTIVE: The paper describes "gastrorrhaphy," deriving from the Greek words "gastir" meaning "abdomen" and "rhaphy" meaning "suturing," which was a technique used for the treatment of abdominal wounds. METHODS: The technique is described in detail in the texts of Celsus (first century A.D.) and in those of Galen (second century A.D.). Furthermore, references were found in Oribasius' texts (fourth century A.D.) and in the writings of two veterinarian doctors of the same period. We provide our drawings in order to elucidate the different techniques of suturing. RESULTS: Celsus described one method of "gastrorrhaphy" while Galen presented two different methods for this procedure. All three methods agree on the processes required: replacement of the prolapsed viscera, cleaning of the wound, and suturing. The difference in methods is in the way of suturing the wound; Celsus suggests stitches in layers. While Galen's first method refers to stitching of the peritoneum with the abdominal wall, his second method refers to stitching of similar structures, meaning peritoneum to peritoneum and abdominal wall to abdominal wall. CONCLUSIONS: Celsus' method strongly resembles stitching in layers with cross-sutures, while both of the Galenic techniques of gastrorrhaphy are versions of the full-thickness sutures used nowadays. It should be stressed out that Galen's methods of "gastrorrhaphy" were used by Andreas Vesalius and Ambroise Paré many centuries later.