FPR1: A critical gatekeeper of the heart and brain.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are currently the most widely focused drug targets in the clinic, exerting their biological functions by binding to chemicals and activating a series of intracellular signaling pathways. Formyl-peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) has a typical seven-transmembrane structure of GPCRs and can be stimulated by a large number of endogenous or exogenous ligands with different chemical properties, the first of which was identified as formyl-methionine-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLF). Through receptor-ligand interactions, FPR1 is involved in inflammatory response, immune cell recruitment, and cellular signaling regulation in key cell types, including neutrophils, neural stem cells (NSCs), and microglia. This review outlines the critical roles of FPR1 in a variety of heart and brain diseases, including myocardial infarction (MI), ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, neurodegenerative diseases, and neurological tumors, with particular emphasis on the milestones of FPR1 agonists and antagonists. Therefore, an in-depth study of FPR1 contributes to the research of innovative biomarkers, therapeutic targets for heart and brain diseases, and clinical applications.

A Genetic Model of Constitutively Active Integrin CD11b/CD18.

Pharmacological activation of integrin CD11b/CD18 (αMß2, Mac-1, and CR3) shows anti-inflammatory benefits in a variety of animal models of human disease, and it is a novel therapeutic strategy. Reasoning that genetic models can provide an orthogonal and direct system for the mechanistic study of CD11b agonism, we present in this study, to our knowledge, a novel knock-in model of constitutive active CD11b in mice. We genetically targeted the Itgam gene (which codes for CD11b) to introduce a point mutation that results in the I332G substitution in the protein. The I332G mutation in CD11b promotes an active, higher-affinity conformation of the ligand-binding I/A-domain (CD11b αA-domain). In vitro, this mutation increased adhesion of knock-in neutrophils to fibrinogen and decreased neutrophil chemotaxis to a formyl-Met-Leu-Phe gradient. In vivo, CD11bI332G animals showed a reduction in recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages in a model of sterile peritonitis. This genetic activation of CD11b also protected against development of atherosclerosis in the setting of hyperlipidemia via reduction of macrophage recruitment into atherosclerotic lesions. Thus, our animal model of constitutive genetic activation of CD11b can be a useful tool for the study of integrin activation and its potential contribution to modulating leukocyte recruitment and alleviating different inflammatory diseases.

Eugenol prevents fMLF-induced superoxide anion production in human neutrophils by inhibiting ERK1/2 signaling pathway and p47phox phosphorylation.

Eugenol is a polyphenol extracted from Syzygium aromaticum essential oil. It is known to have anti-inflammatory and chemoprotective properties as well as a potent anti-oxidant activity due the presence of its phenolic group. In this study, we examined the effects of eugenol on neutrophil superoxide production, a key process involved in innate immunity and inflammation. Superoxide anion generationin human neutrophils was measured by cytochrome c reduction assay. Western blotting was used to analyze the phosphorylation of, p47phox, MAPKinases (p38 and ERK1/2), MEK1/2 and Raf, key proteins involved in the activation of NADPH oxidase. Pretreatment of neutrophils by increasing concentrations (2.5 µg/mL-20 µg/mL) of eugenol for 30 min, inhibited significantly (p < 0.001) superoxide anion generation induced by the chemotactic peptide formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF) with an IC50 of 5 µg/mL. Phorbolmyristate acetate (PMA)-stimulated O2- production was affected only at the highest eugenol concentration (20 µg/mL). Results showed that eugenol decreased the phosphorylation of p47phox onSer-345 and Ser-328, the translocation of p47phox to the membranesand the phosphorylation of Raf, MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 proteins. Taken together, our results suggest that eugenol inhibits the generation of superoxide anion by neutrophils via the inhibition of Raf/MEK/ERK1/2/p47phox-phosphorylation pathway.

Bioactive Capnosanes and Cembranes from the Soft Coral Klyxum flaccidum.

Two new capnosane-based diterpenoids, flaccidenol A (1) and 7-epi-pavidolide D (2), two new cembranoids, flaccidodioxide (3) and flaccidodiol (4), and three known compounds 5 to 7 were characterized from the marine soft coral Klyxum flaccidum, collected off the coast of the island of Pratas. The structures of the new compounds were determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses, including 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and spectroscopic data comparison with related structures. The rare capnosane diterpenoids were isolated herein from the genus Klyxum for the first time. The cytotoxicity of compounds 1 to 7 against the proliferation of a limited panel of cancer cell lines was assayed. The isolated diterpenoids also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity through suppression of superoxide anion generation and elastase release in the N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine/cytochalasin B (fMLF/CB)-stimulated human neutrophils. Furthermore, 1 and 7 also exhibited cytotoxicity toward the tested cancer cells, and 7 could effectively inhibit elastase release. It is worth noting that the biological activities of 7 are reported for the first time in this paper.

TGF-ß promotes fibrosis after severe acute kidney injury by enhancing renal macrophage infiltration.

TGF-ß signals through a receptor complex composed of 2 type I and 2 type II (TGF-ßRII) subunits. We investigated the role of macrophage TGF-ß signaling in fibrosis after AKI in mice with selective monocyte/macrophage TGF-ßRII deletion (macrophage TGF-ßRII-/- mice). Four weeks after injury, renal TGF-ß1 expression and fibrosis were higher in WT mice than macrophage TGF-ßRII-/- mice, which had decreased renal macrophages. The in vitro chemotactic response to f-Met-Leu-Phe was comparable between bone marrow-derived monocytes (BMMs) from WT and macrophage TGF-ßRII-/- mice, but TGF-ßRII-/- BMMs did not respond to TGF-ß. We then implanted Matrigel plugs suffused with either f-Met-Leu-Phe or TGF-ß1 into WT or macrophage TGF-ßRII-/- mice. After 6 days, f-Met-Leu-Phe induced similar macrophage infiltration into the Matrigel plugs of WT and macrophage TGF-ßRII-/- mice, but TGF-ß induced infiltration only in WT mice. We further determined the number of labeled WT or TGF-ßRII-/- BMMs infiltrating into WT kidneys 20 days after ischemic injury. There were more labeled WT BMMs than TGF-ßRII-/- BMMs. Therefore, macrophage TGF-ßRII deletion protects against the development of tubulointerstitial fibrosis following severe ischemic renal injury. Chemoattraction of macrophages to the injured kidney through a TGF-ß/TGF-ßRII axis is a heretofore undescribed mechanism by which TGF-ß can mediate renal fibrosis during progressive renal injury.

Mycobacterial cord factor enhances migration of neutrophil-like HL-60 cells by prolonging AKT phosphorylation.

Trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate (TDM), or cord factor, is a crucial stimulus of immune responses during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Although TDM has immuno-stimulatory properties, including adjuvant activity and the ability to induce granuloma formation, the mechanisms underlying these remain unknown. We hypothesized that TDM stimulates transendothelial migration of neutrophils, which are the first immune cells to infiltrate the tissue upon infection. In this study, it was shown that TDM enhances N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-induced chemotaxis and transendothelial movement by prolonging AKT phosphorylation in human neutrophils. TDM induced expression of macrophage-inducible C-type lectin, a receptor for TDM, and induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in differentiated HL-60 cells. In 2- and 3-D neutrophil migration assays, TDM-stimulated neutrophils showed increased fMLP-induced chemotaxis and transendothelial migration. Interestingly, following fMLP stimulation of TDM-activated neutrophils, AKT, a crucial kinase for neutrophil polarization and chemotaxis, showed prolonged phosphorylation at serine 473. Taken together, these data suggest that TDM modulates transendothelial migration of neutrophils upon mycobacterial infection through prolonged AKT phosphorylation. AKT may therefore be a promising therapeutic target for enhancing immune responses to mycobacterial infection.

Neutrophil azurophilic granule exocytosis is primed by TNF-α and partially regulated by NADPH oxidase.

Neutrophil (polymorphonuclear leukocyte) activation with release of granule contents plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury, prompting clinical trials of inhibitors of neutrophil elastase. Despite mounting evidence for neutrophil-mediated host tissue damage in a variety of disease processes, mechanisms regulating azurophilic granule exocytosis at the plasma membrane, and thus release of elastase and other proteases, are poorly characterized. We hypothesized that azurophilic granule exocytosis would be enhanced under priming conditions similar to those seen during acute inflammatory events and during chronic inflammatory disease, and selected the cytokine TNF-α to model this in vitro. Neutrophils stimulated with TNF-α alone elicited intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and mobilization of secretory vesicles, specific, and gelatinase granules. p38 and ERK1/2 MAPK were involved in these components of priming. TNF-α priming alone did not mobilize azurophilic granules to the cell surface, but did markedly increase elastase release into the extracellular space in response to secondary stimulation with N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF). Priming of fMLF-stimulated elastase release was further augmented in the absence of NADPH oxidase-derived ROS. Our findings provide a mechanism for host tissue damage during neutrophil-mediated inflammation and suggest a novel anti-inflammatory role for the NADPH oxidase.

Reduction of GPSM3 expression akin to the arthritis-protective SNP rs204989 differentially affects migration in a neutrophil model.

G Protein Signaling Modulator-3 (GPSM3) is a leukocyte-specific regulator of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which binds inactivated Gαi·GDP subunits and precludes their reassociation with Gßγ subunits. GPSM3 deficiency protects mice from inflammatory arthritis and, in humans, GPSM3 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are inversely associated with the risk of rheumatoid arthritis development; recently, these polymorphisms were linked to one particular SNP (rs204989) that decreases GPSM3 transcript abundance. However, the precise role of GPSM3 in leukocyte biology is unknown. Here, we show that GPSM3 is induced in the human promyelocytic leukemia NB4 cell line following retinoic acid treatment, which differentiates this cell line into a model of neutrophil physiology (NB4*). Reducing GPSM3 expression in NB4* cells, akin to the effect ascribed to the rs204989 C>T transition, disrupts cellular migration toward leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and (to a lesser extent) interleukin-8 (a.k.a. IL-8 or CXCL8), but not migration toward formylated peptides (fMLP). As the chemoattractants LTB4 and CXCL8 are involved in recruitment of neutrophils to the arthritic joint, our results suggest that the arthritis-protective GPSM3 SNP rs204989 may act to decrease neutrophil chemoattractant responsiveness.

Mitochondrial N-formyl peptides cause airway contraction and lung neutrophil infiltration via formyl peptide receptor activation.

Respiratory failure is a common characteristic of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis. Trauma and severe blood loss cause the release of endogenous molecules known as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Mitochondrial N-formyl peptides (F-MITs) are DAMPs that share similarities with bacterial N-formylated peptides, and are potent immune system activators. Recently, we observed that hemorrhagic shock-induced increases in plasma levels of F-MITs associated with lung damage, and that antagonism of formyl peptide receptors (FPR) ameliorated hemorrhagic shock-induced lung injury in rats. Corroborating these data, in the present study, it was observed that F-MITs expression is higher in plasma samples from trauma patients with SIRS or sepsis when compared to control trauma group. Therefore, to better understand the role of F-MITs in the regulation of lung and airway function, we studied the hypothesis that F-MITs lead to airway contraction and lung inflammation. We observed that F-MITs induced concentration-dependent contraction in trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. However, pre-treatment with mast cells degranulator or FPR antagonist decreased this response. Finally, intratracheal challenge with F-MITs increased neutrophil elastase expression in lung and inducible nitric oxide synthase and cell division control protein 42 expression in all airway segments. These data suggest that F-MITs could be a putative target to treat respiratory failure in trauma patients.

Pharmacological profile of a bifunctional ligand of the formyl peptide receptor1 fused to the myc epitope.

In human peripheral blood neutrophils or in myeloid PLB-985 cells differentiated towards a neutrophil-like phenotype, the peptide N-formyl-L-norleucyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanyl-L-norleucyl-L-tyrosyl-L-leucyl-fluorescein isothiocyanate (f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-FITC) binds to and activates formyl peptide receptor1 (FPR1) and is submitted to receptor-mediated endocytosis (microscopy, cytofluorometry). This peptide may be considered a C-terminally extended version of f-Met-Leu-Phe which carries a fluorescent cargo into cells. By analogy to other peptide hormones for which we have evaluated epitope-tagged agonists as carriers of antibody cargoes, we have designed and evaluated f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-myc, C-terminally extended with the 10-residue myc tag. This peptide is as potent as f-Met-Leu-Phe to compete for f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-FITC uptake by PLB-985 cells, but did not mediate (10-1000nM) the internalization of the fluorescent anti-myc monoclonal antibody 4A6 added to the extracellular fluid at ~7nM (microscopy). The nonfluorescent version of the antibody (28nM) acts as a pre-receptor antagonist of f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-myc, but not of f-Met-Leu-Phe (superoxide release assay in differentiated PLB-985 cells). A further prolonged analog, f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-(Asn-Gly)5-myc, designed to decrease the possible steric hindrance between FPR1 and the bound anti-myc antibody, has little affinity for the receptor, precluding a direct assessment of this issue. Thus, the relatively low-affinity anti-myc antibody used at a high concentration functionally behaves as a selective pre-receptor antagonist of the agonist f-Nle-Leu-Phe-Nle-Tyr-Lys-myc.

Polysaccharides from Bupleurum chinense impact the recruitment and migration of neutrophils by blocking fMLP chemoattractant receptor-mediated functions.

Although neutrophils play important roles in host defense, sometimes they contribute to inflammation-related tissue injuries. Thus, restriction of their recruitment to the inflammatory sites is a promising strategy in the amelioration of inflammatory disease. The previous studies reported the anti-inflammatory effects of Bupleurum chinense, but the active ingredients and possible mechanism are still unclear. Here, we isolated water-soluble polysaccharides (BCPs) from B. chinense, to evaluate its anti-inflammatory effects and possible mechanism. The present results showed that BCPs significantly impaired the in vivo neutrophil infiltration, as well as the migration capacity of dHL-60 cells in vitro. In addition, BCPs inhibits chemoattractant fMLP-induced activation and clustering of ß2 integrin. BCPs impacted fMLP-induced actin polymerization and the activation of cytoskeleton regulatory molecules, Vav1 and Rac1. Together, BCPs significantly impacted recruitment and migration of neutrophils by blocking chemoattractant receptor-mediated functions, and it possesses a potential as novel anti-inflammatory drug.

Functional characterization of three mouse formyl peptide receptors.

The evolutionary relationship and functional correlation between human formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) and their mouse counterparts remain incompletely understood. We examined three members of the mouse formyl peptide receptor subfamily (mFprs) and found that they differ in agonist preference and cellular distributions. When stably expressed in transfected rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells, mFpr1 was readily activated by N-formylated peptides derived from Listeria monocytogenes (fMIVTLF), Staphylococcus aureus (fMIFL), and mitochondria (fMMYALF). In contrast, the Escherichia coli-derived fMLF was 1000-fold less potent. The aforementioned peptides were much less efficacious at mFpr2, which responded better to the synthetic hexapeptide WKYMVm, the synthetic agonists Quin-C1 (a substituted quinazolinone), and compound 43 (a nitrosylated pyrazolone derivative). Saturation binding assays showed that mFpr1 and mFpr2 were expressed at similar levels on the cell surface, although their affinity for N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe-Ile-Ile-Lys-fluorescein isothiocyanate varied by more than 1000-fold [dissociation constant (K(d)) values of 2.8 nM for mFpr1 and 4.8 µM for mFpr2]). Contrary to these receptors, mFpr-rs1 responded poorly to all the previously mentioned peptides that were tested. Fluorescent microscopy revealed an intracellular distribution pattern of mFpr-rs1. On the basis of these results, we conclude that mFpr1 is an ortholog of human FPR1 with certain pharmacologic properties of human FPR2/ALX, whereas mFpr2 has much lower affinity for formyl peptides. The intracellular distribution of mFpr-rs1 suggests an evolutionary correlation with human FPR3.

Effects of synthetic peptides on the inflammatory response and their therapeutic potential.

Recently, interest in small peptide molecules as potential drug candidates has revived. In this review, two series of synthetic peptides and their selective effects on the inflammatory response have been described, focusing on the intracellular pathways involved and on their therapeutic potential. A series of F(D)LF(D)LF analogs has been synthesized, including either N- t-Boc or different N-ureido substituents. The free acid derivatives as they are good candidates as antiinflammatory drugs are able to antagonize the multiple neutrophil functions evoked by N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-Lphenylalanine (fMLF), i.e. chemotaxis, superoxide anion production and lysozyme release. Their methyl-ester derivatives are ineffective. The second series of peptides derives from the endogenous protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor PKI55, a 55-amino acid protein, whose synthesis is induced by PKC activation, so that a feedback loop of inhibition is established. In vitro experiments showed that PKI55 inhibits recombinant PKC isoforms α, ß1, ß2, γ, δ, ζ, ; to identify the minimal amino acid sequence of PKI55 protein maintaining the inhibitory effects on PKC, peptides derived from both C- and N-terminal sequences have been synthesized. The N-terminal peptides 5 (MLYKLHDVCRQLWFSC), 8 (CRQLWFSC) and 9 (CRQLW), that in human neutrophils retain the inhibitory activity on PKC, decrease the chemotaxis, and, in mice, display anti-inflammatory and analgesic action, after both central and peripheral administration of very low doses. Furthermore, the peptide 5 shows neuroprotective activity in a model of cerebral ischemia in vitro, favouring the recovery of synaptic function. These findings suggest interesting possible therapeutic applications for these peptides.

Gadd45a and Gadd45b modulate innate immune functions of granulocytes and macrophages by differential regulation of p38 and JNK signaling.

Gadd45 proteins function as stress sensors in response to various physiological and environmental stressors, interacting with other cellular proteins implicated in cellular stress responses, including p38 and JNK. This study shows that mice lacking either Gadd45a or Gadd45b are defective in the recruitment of granulocytes and macrophages to the intra-peritoneal cavity following intra-peritoneal administration of the bacterial cell wall pathogen-associated molecular pattern lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Bone marrow derived granulocytes and macrophages lacking either Gadd45a or Gadd45b are shown to be impaired in their chemotactic response to LPS, as well as other inflammatory stimuli such as N-formyl-methionine-leucine-phenylalanine and IL-8. Evidence was obtained also implicating Gadd45a and Gadd45b in other myeloid innate immune functions, including reactive oxygen species production, phagocytosis, and adhesion. Gadd45a and Gadd45b activation of p38 kinase was implicated in the response of granulocytes to LPS mediated chemotaxis, whereas Gadd45a and Gadd45b curtailment of JNK activation was linked to chemotaxis of macrophages in response to LPS. Collectively, these data highlight a novel role for both Gadd45a and Gadd45b in myeloid innate immune functions by differential modulation of p38 and JNK signaling in granulocytes compared to macrophages.

RAGE and ICAM-1 differentially control leukocyte recruitment during acute inflammation in a stimulus-dependent manner.

BACKGROUND: The receptor for advanced glycation endproducts, RAGE, is involved in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory conditions, which is mostly related to its strong activation of NF-κB but also due to its function as ligand for the ß2-integrin Mac-1. To further dissect the stimulus-dependent role of RAGE on leukocyte recruitment during inflammation, we investigated ß2-integrin-dependent leukocyte adhesion in RAGE-/- and Icam1-/- mice in different cremaster muscle models of inflammation using intravital microscopy. RESULTS: We demonstrate that RAGE, but not ICAM-1 substantially contributes to N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-induced leukocyte adhesion in TNF-α-pretreated cremaster muscle venules in a Mac-1-dependent manner. In contrast, fMLP-stimulated leukocyte adhesion in unstimulated cremaster muscle venules is independent of RAGE, but dependent on ICAM-1 and its interaction with LFA-1. Furthermore, chemokine CXCL1-stimulated leukocyte adhesion in surgically prepared cremaster muscle venules was independent of RAGE but strongly dependent on ICAM-1 and LFA-1 suggesting a differential and stimulus-dependent regulation of leukocyte adhesion during inflammation in vivo. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that RAGE and ICAM-1 differentially regulate leukocyte adhesion in vivo in a stimulus-dependent manner.

Behavioral and structural differences in migrating peripheral neutrophils from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

RATIONALE: There are increased neutrophils in the lungs of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but it is unclear if this is due to increased inflammatory signal or related to the inherent behavior of the neutrophils. This is critical, because inaccurate or excessive neutrophil chemotaxis could drive pathological accumulation and tissue damage. OBJECTIVES: To assess migratory dynamics of neutrophils isolated from patients with COPD compared with healthy smoking and nonsmoking control subjects and patients with α(1)-antitryspin deficiency. METHODS: Migratory dynamics and structure were assessed in circulating neutrophils, using phase and differential interference contrast microscopy and time-lapse photography. The effect of COPD severity was studied. Surface expression of receptors was measured using flow cytometry. The in vitro effects of a phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor (LY294002) were studied. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: COPD neutrophils moved with greater speed than cells from either control group but with reduced migratory accuracy, in the presence of IL-8, growth-related oncogene α, formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine, and sputum. This was present across all stages of COPD. Structurally, COPD neutrophils formed fewer pseudopods during migration. There were no differences in surface expression of the receptors CXCR1, CXCR2, or FPR1. LY294002 reduced COPD neutrophil migratory speed while increasing chemotactic accuracy, returning values to normal. The inhibitor did not have these effects in healthy control subjects or patients with a similar degree of lung disease. CONCLUSIONS: COPD neutrophils are intrinsically different than cells from other studied populations in their chemotactic behavior and migratory structure. Differences are not due to surface expression of chemoattractant receptors but instead appear to be due to differences in cell signaling.

Dictyostelium amoebae and neutrophils can swim.

Animal cells migrating over a substratum crawl in amoeboid fashion; how the force against the substratum is achieved remains uncertain. We find that amoebae and neutrophils, cells traditionally used to study cell migration on a solid surface, move toward a chemotactic source while suspended in solution. They can swim and do so with speeds similar to those on a solid substrate. Based on the surprisingly rapidly changing shape of amoebae as they swim and earlier theoretical schemes for how suspended microorganisms can migrate (Purcell EM (1977) Life at low Reynolds number. Am J Phys 45:3-11), we suggest the general features these cells use to gain traction with the medium. This motion requires either the movement of the cell's surface from the cell's front toward its rear or protrusions that move down the length of the elongated cell. Our results indicate that a solid substratum is not a prerequisite for these cells to produce a forward thrust during movement and suggest that crawling and swimming are similar processes, a comparison we think is helpful in understanding how cells migrate.

Anti-inflammatory role of the murine formyl-peptide receptor 2: ligand-specific effects on leukocyte responses and experimental inflammation.

The human formyl-peptide receptor (FPR)-2 is a G protein-coupled receptor that transduces signals from lipoxin A(4), annexin A1, and serum amyloid A (SAA) to regulate inflammation. In this study, we report the creation of a novel mouse colony in which the murine FprL1 FPR2 homologue, Fpr2, has been deleted and describe its use to explore the biology of this receptor. Deletion of murine fpr2 was verified by Southern blot analysis and PCR, and the functional absence of the G protein-coupled receptor was confirmed by radioligand binding assays. In vitro, Fpr2(-/-) macrophages had a diminished response to formyl-Met-Leu-Phe itself and did not respond to SAA-induced chemotaxis. ERK phosphorylation triggered by SAA was unchanged, but that induced by the annexin A1-derived peptide Ac2-26 or other Fpr2 ligands, such as W-peptide and compound 43, was attenuated markedly. In vivo, the antimigratory properties of compound 43, lipoxin A(4), annexin A1, and dexamethasone were reduced notably in Fpr2(-/-) mice compared with those in wild-type littermates. In contrast, SAA stimulated neutrophil recruitment, but the promigratory effect was lost following Fpr2 deletion. Inflammation was more marked in Fpr2(-/-) mice, with a pronounced increase in cell adherence and emigration in the mesenteric microcirculation after an ischemia-reperfusion insult and an augmented acute response to carrageenan-induced paw edema, compared with that in wild-type controls. Finally, Fpr2(-/-) mice exhibited higher sensitivity to arthrogenic serum and were completely unable to resolve this chronic pathology. We conclude that Fpr2 is an anti-inflammatory receptor that serves varied regulatory functions during the host defense response. These data support the development of Fpr2 agonists as novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics.

The GIT-PIX complexes regulate the chemotactic response of rat basophilic leukaemia cells.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Cell motility entails the reorganization of the cytoskeleton and membrane trafficking for effective protrusion. The GIT-PIX protein complexes are involved in the regulation of cell motility and adhesion and in the endocytic traffic of members of the family of G-protein-coupled receptors. We have investigated the function of the endogenous GIT complexes in the regulation of cell motility stimulated by fMLP (formyl-Met-Leu-Phe) peptide, in a rat basophilic leukaemia RBL-2H3 cell line stably expressing an HA (haemagglutinin)-tagged receptor for the fMLP peptide. RESULTS: Our analysis shows that RBL cells stably transfected with the chemoattractant receptor expressed both GIT1-PIX and GIT2-PIX endogenous complexes. We have used silencing of the different members of the complex by small interfering RNAs to study the effects on a number of events linked to agonist-induced cell migration. We found that cell adhesion was not affected by depletion of any of the proteins of the GIT complex, whereas agonist-enhanced cell spreading was inhibited. Analysis of agonist-stimulated haptotactic cell migration indicated a specific positive effect of GIT1 depletion on trans-well migration. The internalization of the formyl-peptide receptor was also inhibited by depletion of GIT1 and GIT2. The effects of the GIT complexes on trafficking of the receptors was confirmed by an antibody-enhanced agonist-induced internalization assay, showing that depletion of PIX, GIT1 or GIT2 protein caused decreased perinuclear accumulation of internalized receptors. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that endogenous GIT complexes are involved in the regulation of chemoattractant-induced cell motility and receptor trafficking, and support previous findings indicating an important function of the GIT complexes in the regulation of different G-protein-coupled receptors. Our results also indicate that endogenous GIT1 and GIT2 regulate distinct subsets of agonist-induced responses and suggest a possible functional link between the control of receptor trafficking and the regulation of cell motility by GIT proteins.

Characterisation of degranulation and phagocytic capacity of a human neutrophilic cellular model, PLB-985 cells.

Exocytosis of neutrophil granules is a major event that converts circulating neutrophils into fully activated cells capable of chemotaxis, phagocytosis and destruction of pathogens. The PLB-985 cell line is a suitable neutrophilic cellular model which is utilised to study the different functional responses of neutrophils. In this study, we characterised the differentiation of PLB-985 cells toward the granulocytic pathway, using three different inducing agents: dbcAMP, DMSO and DMF. The differentiation efficiency was monitored by observation of cell morphology with electron microscopy, and by analysis of the expression of receptors such as FPRL1 and FcgammaRIIA, the distribution or release of granule markers, phagocytic capacity, as well as measurement of fMLF-induced calcium fluxes. Exocytosis and phagocytosis in differentiated cells were weaker as compared to neutrophils. fMLF stimulated primary granule exocytosis in cells differentiated with dbcAMP, DMSO and DMF, whereas the release of the contents of tertiary granules, as well as that of secretory vesicles, was only observed in dbcAMP-differentiated cells. DMSO-differentiated cells exhibited the highest phagocytic capacity. Altogether our results reinforce the fact that depending on the differentiating agent used, PLB-985 cells represent a useful model to study neutrophil functions and to bypass difficulties inherent to these primary cells.