Neuroética: comienza el reinado de las neurociencias en la fundamentación de la ética / Neuroethics: the reign of neuroscience begins in the foundation of the ethics / Neuroética: começa o reinado das neurociências na fundamentação da ética

Resumen: 1] La neurociencia de la ética constituye un progreso al aplicar la ciencia empírica en la investigación del fenómeno moral. 2] Resaltar la importancia de afectos y sentimientos representa una compensación a la excesiva importancia dada a la razón en la formación de los juicios morales. 3] Existen graves dificultades metodológicas al no precisar los conceptos de "intuición", "afectos", "deber" y especialmente qué se entiende por "ética". 4] Pero la investigación científica aprehende al hombre como una "entidad" en sí (presente) y no como una "existencia" (futuro), vale decir, ser-en-el-mundo. 5] En lugar de "tener" una moral el ser humano "es" moral y, como tal, es un proyecto lanzado hacia su más auténtica posibilidad que consiste en apropiarse de su ser-para-la-muerte.

Abstract: 1] The Neuroscience of Ethics constitutes a progress when applying empirical science in the investigation of the moral phenomenon. 2] Emphasizing the importance of affects and feelings represents a compensation for the excessive importance given to reason in the formation of moral judgments. 3] There are serious methodological difficulties by not specifying the concepts of intuition, affections, duty and especially what is understood by ethics. 4] But scientific research apprehends man as an "entity" in himself (present) and not as an "existence" (future), that is, being-in-the-world. 5] Instead of "having" a moral, the human being "is" moral and as such is a project thrown towards its most authentic possibility that consists of appropriating its being-for-death.

Resumo: 1] A neurociência da ética constitui um progresso ao aplicar a ciência empírica na investigação do fenômeno moral. 2] Ressaltar a importância de afetos e sentimentos representa uma compensação à excessiva importância dada à razão na formação dos juízos morais. 3] Existem graves dificuldades metodológicas ao não precisar os conceitos de "intuição", "afetos", "dever" e especialmente o que se entende por "ética". 4] Porém a investigação científica apreende o homem como uma "entidade" em si (presente) e não como una "existência" (futuro), vale dizer, ser-no-mundo. 5] Em lugar de "ter" uma moral o ser humano "é" moral e, como tal, é um projeto lançado à sua mais autêntica possibilidade, que consiste em apropriar-se de seu ser-para-a-morte.

Neurosurgical Patients as Human Research Subjects: Ethical Considerations in Intracranial Electrophysiology Research.

Intracranial electrical recordings and stimulation of neurosurgical patients have been central to the advancement of human neuroscience. The use of these methods has rapidly expanded over the last decade due to theoretical and technical advances, as well as the growing number of neurosurgical patients undergoing functional procedures for indications such as epilepsy, tumor resection, and movement disorders. These methods pose the potential for ethical conflict, as they involve basic neuroscientific research utilizing invasive procedures in human patients undergoing treatment for neurological illnesses. This review addresses technical aspects, clinical contexts, and issues of ethical concern, utilizing a framework that is informed by, but also departs from, existing bioethical literature on matters in clinical research. We conclude with proposals for improving informed consent processes to address potential problems specific to intracranial electrophysiology research, a general schema for scrutinizing research-related risk associated with different methods, and a call for the development of consensus to ensure continuing scientific progress alongside crucial patient protections in this promising area of human neuroscience.

Neuroethics: the institutionalization of ethics in neuroscience / Neuroética: la institucionalización de la ética en neurociencia / Neuroética: a institucionalização da ética na neurociência

Abstract Recent advances in neuroscience have led to numerous ethical questions. Neuroethics is the study of ethical, legal and social advancements in neuroscience which, despite being a recently developed discipline, has a long historical tradition. The concern with ethical issues in neuroscience is extremely old and dates back to the philosophical and scientific traditions that originally sought to understand the relationship between the brain and behavior. More recently, the field of neuroethics has emerged in the context of public and academic debate over the consequences of the advances arising from neuroscience. In the current context, technological innovations, which have arisen from the expansion of neuroscience research, have raised new ethical dilemmas. This article aims to analyze the historical course of ethics within the field of neuroscience, specifically the appearance and the recent institutionalization of neuroethics.

Resumen Los avances recientes en neurociencia han dado lugar a numerosas cuestiones éticas. La Neuroética es el estudio de los avances éticos, legales y sociales en neurociencia. A pesar de ser una disciplina desarrollada recientemente, la neuroética tiene una larga tradición histórica. La preocupación por las cuestiones éticas en la neurociencia es antigua y se remonta a las tradiciones filosóficas y científicas que originalmente habían tratado de comprender la relación entre cerebro y comportamiento. Más recientemente, el campo de la neuroética surgió en el contexto del debate público y académico sobre las consecuencias de los avances derivados de la neurociencia. En el contexto actual, las innovaciones tecnológicas, que han surgido del crecimiento de la investigación en neurociencia, han planteado nuevos dilemas éticos. Este artículo pretende analizar el curso histórico de la ética en el campo de la neurociencia, específicamente la aparición y la reciente institucionalización de la neuroética.

Resumo Os recentes avanços na neurociência suscitam inúmeras questões éticas. Neuroética é o estudo dos avanços éticos, legais e sociais em neurociência. Apesar de ser uma disciplina desenvolvida recentemente, a neuroética tem uma longa tradição histórica. A preocupação com questões éticas na neurociência é antiga e remonta às tradições filosóficas e científicas que originalmente tinham procurado compreender a relação entre cérebro e comportamento. Mais recentemente, o campo da neuroética surgiu no contexto do debate público e acadêmico sobre os efeitos dos avanços decorrentes da neurociência. No contexto atual, as inovações tecnológicas, que surgiram do crescimento da pesquisa em neurociência, levantaram novos dilemas éticos. Este artigo tem como objetivo analisar o curso histórico da ética no campo da neurociência, especificamente a recente institucionalização da neuroética.

Neuroethics and Disorders of Consciousness: Discerning Brain States in Clinical Practice and Research.

Decisions about end-of-life care and participation in clinical research for patients with disorders of consciousness begin with diagnostic discernment. Accurately distinguishing between brain states clarifies clinicians' ethical obligations and responsibilities. Central to this effort is the obligation to provide neuropalliative care for patients in the minimally conscious state who can perceive pain and to restore functional communication through neuroprosthetics, drugs, and rehabilitation to patients with intact but underactivated neural networks. Efforts to bring scientific advances to patients with disorders of consciousness are reviewed, including the investigational use of deep brain stimulation in patients in the minimally conscious state. These efforts help to affirm the civil rights of a population long on the margins.

La ciencia irrumpe en la ética médica: neuroética y psicoanálisis de Freud / The irruption of science in medical ethics: neuroethics and Freud’s psychoanalysis / A ciência irrompe na ética médica: neuroética e psicanálise de Freud

El psicoanálisis y la neuroética se ocupan de los fenómenos éticos que nacen de la aplicación de técnicas y tecnologías surgidos de las ciencias de la psiquis. Existe una considerable coincidencia entre los tópicos cubiertos por la neuroética y los fenómenos conceptuales que han constituido la ocupación de los psicoanalistas. La neuroética descansa en una perspectiva biologicista, en la que es real solo aquello que es biológico; con ello entrega una visión de la ética que limita el significado del único tema que importa al psicoanálisis: la comprensión de los significados inconscientes y el papel del discurso para discernir y justificar estos sentidos. La neuroética ha conducido a la ética a considerar lo sensorial, lo físico y lo visual, a expensas del significado psicológico de la dimensión psíquica de la existencia humana.

Psychoanalysis and neuroethics are concerned with ethical issues arising in the application of techniques and technologies stemming from the sciences of the mind. There is considerable overlap between the topics covered in neuroethics and in conceptual issues with which psychoanalists have long been concerned. Relying on a biologistic perspective, whereby only what is biological is real, neuroehtics offers a vision of ethics that limits the significance of the unique psychoanalytic concern: the understanding of unconscious meanings and the role of discourse in discerning and justifying these meanings. Neurethics has been leading ethics toward an appreciation of the sensory, the physical, the visual, at the expense of psychological meaning, the psychic dimension of human existence.

A psicanálise e a neuroética se ocupam dos fenômenos éticos que nascem da aplicação de técnicas e tecnologias surgidos das ciências da psiquê. Existe uma considerável coincidência entre os tópicos cobertos pela neuroética e os fenômenos conceituais que tem constituido a ocupação dos psicanalistas. A neuroética descansa numa perspectiva biologicista, na qual é real só aquilo que é biológico; com isso entrega uma visão da ética que limita o significado do único tema que importa à psicanálise: a compreensão dos significados inconscientes e o papel do discurso para discernir e justificar estes sentidos. A neuroética tem conduzido a ética a considerar o sensorial, o físico e o visual, às expensas do significado psicológico da dimensão psíquica da existência humana.

Neuroética, deficiência e reabilitação / Neuroethics, disability and rehabilitation

Este texto na forma de ensaio apresenta um tema muito atual em Neurociências ­ a Neuroética. Definida como o exame do que é certo ou errado, em relação ao tratamento do cérebro humano, seu aperfeiçoamento, sua boa invasão ou manipulação preocupante, trata-se de uma disciplina derivada da Bioética que visa discutir e relacionar os temas acerca da moral e da ética sob a luz das Neurociências. O enfoque é dado aos aspectos relacionados à Neurorreabilitação, haja vista que frequentemente nos deparamos com dilemas éticos importantes no que diz respeito às condutas e atitudes empregadas no processo de reabilitação de indivíduos portadores de deficiências. Decisões terapêuticas adequadas e uma boa relação terapeuta/paciente são fatores essenciais para que se obtenha êxito no manejo destes casos. São levantadas as questões polêmicas da abordagem terapêutica, o modelo médico de classificação das deficiências e as políticas públicas de saúde voltadas para essa parcela da população. Assim, busca-se despertar nos profissionais da área o interesse pela reflexão ética e filosófica a respeito do que fazemos diante destes pacientes e dos seus familiares. De forma evidente, existe a necessidade de um esforço conjunto da sociedade, com intuito de proporcionar condições reais de inclusão em todas as fases da vida, e em todos os níveis de atendimento, garantindo acessibilidade, além de inserção em âmbito escolar e no mercado de trabalho.

This text in the form of essay presents a very current topic in Neuroscience - the Neuroethics. Defined as the examination of what is right or wrong in relation to the treatment of the human brain, its improvement, its good worrisome intrusion or manipulation, it is a derivative of Bioethics discipline that aims to discuss and relate those issues of morality and ethics in the light of Neuroscience. The focus is given to aspects related to Neurorehabilitation, given the fact that often we are faced with important ethical dilemmas with regard to behavior and attitudes employed in the process of rehabilitation of the disabled individuals. Appropriate treatment decisions and a good therapist/patient relationship, are essential in order to obtain success in handling these cases. The controversial issues of the therapeutic approach, the classification of medical model of disability and health public policies for this population are raised. Thus, we seek to awaken the professionals interest in philosophical and ethical reflection about what we do on these patients and their families. Evidently, there is a need for a joint effort of society, aiming to provide real conditions for inclusion in all stages of life and at all levels of care, ensuring accessibility, and integration in the school environment and the market work.

Neuroethics: the pursuit of transforming medical ethics in scientific ethics

Ethical problems resulting from brain research have given rise to a new discipline termed neuroethics, representing a new kind of knowledge capable of discovering the neural basis for universal ethics. The article (1) tries to evaluate the contributions of neuroethics to medical ethics and its suitability to outline the foundations of universal ethics, (2) critically analyses the process of founding this universal ethic. The potential benefits of applying neuroimaging, psy-chopharmacology and neurotechnology have to be carefully weighed against their potential harm. In view of these questions, an intensive dialogue between neuroscience and the humanities is more necessary than ever.

Human-animal chimera: a neuro driven discussion? Comparison of three leading European research countries.

Research with human-animal chimera raises a number of ethical concerns, especially when neural stem cells are transplanted into the brains of non-human primates (NHPs). Besides animal welfare concerns and ethical issues associated with the use of embryonic stem cells, the research is also regarded as controversial from the standpoint of NHPs developing cognitive or behavioural capabilities that are regarded as "unique" to humans. However, scientists are urging to test new therapeutic approaches for neurological diseases in primate models as they better mimic human physiology than all current animal models. As a response, various countries have issued reports on the topic. Our paper summarizes the ethical issues raised by research with human-animal brain chimeras and compares the relevant regulatory instruments and different recommendations issued in national reports from three important European research nations: Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. We assess and discuss the focus and priorities set by the different reports, review various reasons for and perspectives on the importance of the brain in chimera research, and identify critical points in the reports that warrant further specification and debate.

Ethical Issues in Neuromarketing: "I Consume, Therefore I am!".

Neuromarketing is a recent interdisciplinary field which crosses traditional boundaries between neuroscience, neuroeconomics and marketing research. Since this nascent field is primarily concerned with improving marketing strategies and promoting sales, there has been an increasing public aversion and protest against it. These protests can be exemplified by the reactions observed lately in Baylor School of Medicine and Emory University in the United States. The most recent attempt to stop ongoing neuromarketing research in France is also remarkable. The pertaining ethical issues have been continuously attracting much attention, especially since the number of neuromarketing companies has exceeded 300 world-wide. This paper begins with a brief introduction to the field of neurotechnology by presenting its current capabilities and limitations. Then, it will focus on the ethical issues and debates most related with the recent applications of this technology. The French Parliament's revision of rules on bioethics in 2004 has an exemplary role in our discussion. The proposal by Murphy et al. (2008) has attracted attention to the necessity of ethical codes structuring this field. A code has recently been declared by the Neuromarketing Science and Business Association. In this paper, it is argued that these technologies should be sufficiently discussed in public spheres and its use on humans should be fully carried out according to the ethical principles and legal regulations designed in line with human rights and human dignity. There is an urgent need in the interdisciplinary scientific bodies like ethics committees monitoring the research regarding the scientific and ethical values of nonmaleficence, beneficence, autonomy, confidentiality, right to privacy and protection of vulnerable groups.

Wilder Penfield - bioethicist.

Bioethics is a new discipline which developed as modern medical and scientific breakthroughs surpassed the ability of traditional medical ethics to contend with unique ethical dilemmas. It evolved into an interdisciplinary discourse regarding the ethical and societal implications of medicine and the biomedical sciences. Wilder Penfield (1891-1976), celebrated neurosurgeon and neuroscientist, is rarely thought of as a "bioethicist," and his mention in texts on the history of bioethics is little more than a footnote. However, he appears to have contributed to the field of bioethics in a number of ways: through his solutions to the ethical problems posed by the unique form of surgery he developed; through his recognition of the limitations of traditional medical ethics; through his involvement of the public and other disciplines in ethical discussions; and through the impact that his work still has today in the area of bioethics termed "neuroethics."

The ethics of surgically invasive neuroscience research.

A clear understanding of distinctions and definitions is necessary before determining which types of surgically invasive neuroscience research should be permitted and how the experimental protocols can properly be undertaken. A failure to clarify the ethical distinctions in invasive neuroscience research hinders attempts at ethical analysis and guidance. At least four main distinctions need to be addressed: "invasiveness" as an important moral characteristic; special brain-mind-related risks; research participant selection; and ideologic interpretation of human function. Harm and not invasiveness is the metric by which to measure the ethical permissibility of research. Because of a class of harms to minds and selves, special attention should be paid to value considerations. These considerations need to be addressed by researchers, funders, and review boards to create proper safeguards from conception of research through final application of results.

Las ambiciones de la neuroética: fundar científicamente la moral / As ambições da neuroética: fundar cientificamente a moral / The ambitions of neuroethics: to find the scientific fundament of morals

Los progresos recientes en neurociencias han desembocado en problemas éticos. La neurociencia de la ética investiga los mecanismos neurales que posiblemente subyacen a los conceptos y prácticas éticas. El método científico moderno excluye de entrada todos los objetos posibles de investigación científica que no puedan ser reducidos a fenómenos sensoriales observables y mensurables. Pero la esencia del hombre no es ser-ante-los-ojos, sino “existencia”. Contrariamente a todas las otras criaturas, el ser humano se caracteriza por ser comprensor del ser. Como ser-en-el-mundo el hombre está perdido en su cotidianidad en una disipación óntica. Él escucha a su voz de la consciencia cuando lo llama a la autenticidad, es decir, hacia su potencialidad más propia y a aceptar su finitud constitutiva.

The recent progress in neuroscience has led to ethical questions. The neuroscience of ethics investigates the neural mechanisms that may possibly underlie ethical concepts and practices. The modern scientific method rules out in advance as possible objects of scientific investigation all phenomena that cannot be reduced to observable and measurable sensory phenomena. But the essence of man is not “entity” as such (present) but “existence”. Like no other creature awareness of being characterizes him most profoundly. As being-in-the-World humans are lost in their everyday life in ontic dissipation. He listens to the voice of conscience when this call to authenticity, that is, unto its own proper potentiality, and unto accepting his constitutive finitude.

Os progressos recentes em neurociências têm desembocado em problemas éticos. A neurociência da ética investiga os mecanismos neurais possivelmente subjacentes nos conceitos e práticas éticas. O método científico moderno exclui de entrada todos os objetos possíveis de investigação científica que não podem ser reduzidos a fenômenos sensoriais observáveis e mensuráveis. Porém, a essência do homem não é ser-diante-dos-olhos, senão “existir”. Contrariamente a todas as outras criaturas, o ser humano se caracteriza por aquele que compreende o ser. Como ser-no-mundo o homem está perdido em sua cotidianidade numa dissipação ôntica. Ele escuta a voz da consciência quando o chama à autenticidade, ou seja, para a sua potencialidade mais própria e a aceitar a sua finitude constitutiva.

Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad y el mejoramiento cognitivo: ¿cuál es la responsabilidad del médico? / Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cognitive enhancement: which is the medical responsibility?

El artículo trata del mejoramiento neurofarmacológico de la cognición, uno de los temas más frecuentes en Neuroética y Bioética aplicada a la Neurociencia. Discute acerca del uso racional de estos fármacos. La normalización social, según Georges Canguilhem, unifica la diversidad estableciendo valores en común para una sociedad. El mejoramiento cognitivo farmacológico puede favorecer el cumplimiento de deberes y expectativas sociales surgidos a partir de estos valores. El mejoramiento cognitivo farmacológico cosmético y terapéutico (por ejemplo, el utilizado en el TDAH, caso sobre el que se centra este artículo) implica por parte del médico asumir la responsabilidad de facilitar el cumplimiento de ciertas expectativas sociales, adhiriéndose implícitamente a ellas. En la conclusión se considera necesaria entonces, una reflexión del médico acerca del sentido de estas expectativas teniendo en cuenta valores como la vida, la identidad, la integridad, la libertad, la salud y el bienestar de las personas y comunidades.

The article is about neuropharmacological enhancement of cognition, one of the most common topics of the Neuroethics and Bioethics applied to Neuroscience. It discusses the rational use of these drugs. Socialnormalization, according to Georges Canguilhem, unifies diversity establishing common values for society.The pharmacological cognitive enhancement can help the compliance of the duties and expectations arisingfrom these values. The cosmetic and therapeutic pharmacological cognitive enhancement (for example, usedin ADHD, case in which this article is focusing) implies for the physicians the social responsibility of makingeasier the compliance of certain social expectations, adhering to them implicitly. Then it is necessary for thephysician to reflect about the meaning of those social expectations taking into account values such as life,identity, integrity, freedom, health and welfare of persons and communities.

Psiquiatría y neuroética / [Psychiatry and neuroethics].

Neuroscientific knowledge have enter to psychiatry in a new era, however, new technology for viewing images, brain function, psychopharmacology, non-invasive methodology requires an ethical approach, framed in the bioethical environment. The field of neuroethics has evolved to address many of the specific concerns and what neuroenhancement and neuroimaging provide us, is necessary to extend the scope of ethical things to consider the clinical implications for the psychiatric work.

Rodent stereotaxic surgery and animal welfare outcome improvements for behavioral neuroscience.

Stereotaxic surgery for the implantation of cannulae into specific brain regions has for many decades been a very successful experimental technique to investigate the effects of locally manipulated neurotransmitter and signaling pathways in awake, behaving animals. Moreover, the stereotaxic implantation of electrodes for electrophysiological stimulation and recording studies has been instrumental to our current understanding of neuroplasticity and brain networks in behaving animals. Ever-increasing knowledge about optimizing surgical techniques in rodents(1-4), public awareness concerning animal welfare issues and stringent legislation (e.g., the 2010 European Union Directive on the use of laboratory animals(5)) prompted us to refine these surgical procedures, particularly with respect to implementing new procedures for oxygen supplementation and the continuous monitoring of blood oxygenation and heart rate levels during the surgery as well as introducing a standardized protocol for post-surgical care. Our observations indicate that these modifications resulted in an increased survival rate and an improvement in the general condition of the animals after surgery (e.g. less weight loss and a more active animal). This video presentation will show the general procedures involved in this type of stereotaxic surgery with special attention to our several modifications. We will illustrate these surgical procedures in rats, but it is also possible to perform this type of surgery in mice or other small laboratory animals by using special adaptors for the stereotaxic apparatus(6).

Seria a moralidade determinada pelo cérebro? Neurônios-espelhos, empatia e neuromoralidade / Does the brain have anything to do with morality? Mirror neurons, empathy and neuromorality

O objetivo do artigo é analisar o impacto do progresso das neurociências, em particular da descoberta dos neurônios-espelhos, sobre as teses referentes à moralidade. Analisamos as tentativas atuais de naturalizar a moralidade baseadas nessa descoberta, a partir da qual se reduzem os princípios éticos a propriedades biológicas da natureza humana. Investigamos como os estudos em psicologia sobre a função da empatia, da capacidade de se colocar na perspectiva do outro e da simulação corporificada ganharam nova credibilidade, poder explicativo e, sobretudo, relevância teórica por causa da descoberta dos sistemas de neurônios-espelhos. Como parte desse movimento, observamos novas tentativas nas pesquisas atuais em estabelecer conexões funcionais e possivelmente causais entre o cérebro e o pensamento moral. Consideramos, numa perspectiva crítica, essas tentativas e a busca renovada pela formulação de uma ética naturalizada.

This paper aims to consider the impact of progress in the neurosciences, in particular the discovery of mirror neurons, on the study of morality. It analyzes the current attempts at naturalizing moral principles based on this discovery, reducing human morality to basic biological properties. It explores how psychological studies on empathy, perspective taking and embodied simulation have gained new credibility, explanatory power, and overall theoretical "traction" because of the discovery of mirror neuron systems. As part of this movement, there are now renewed attempts by researchers at establishing functional links, possibly causal links, between brain and moral thought. These attempts and the renewed quest toward naturalizing ethics are critically considered.

Defining neuromarketing: practices and professional challenges.

Neuromarketing has recently generated controversies concerning the involvement of medical professionals, and many key questions remain-ones that have potentially important implications for the field of psychiatry. Conflicting definitions of neuromarketing have been proposed, and little is known about the actual practices of companies, physicians, and scientists involved in its practice. This article reviews the history of neuromarketing and uses an exploratory survey of neuromarketing Web sites to illustrate ethical issues raised by this new field. Neuromarketing, as currently practiced, is heterogeneous, as companies are offering a variety of technologies. Many companies employ academicians and professionals, but few list their clients or fees. Media coverage of neuromarketing appears disproportionately high compared to the paucity of peer-reviewed reports in the field. Companies may be making premature claims about the power of neuroscience to predict consumer behavior. Overall, neuromarketing has important implications for academic-industrial partnerships, the responsible conduct of research, and the public understanding of the brain. We explore these themes to uncover issues relevant to professional ethics, research, and policy. Of particular relevance to psychiatry, neuromarketing may be seen as an extension of the search for quantification and certainty in previously indefinite aspects of human behavior.