A narrative review of hydrogen-oxygen mixture for medical purpose and the inhaler thereof.

Recent development regarding mixture of H2 (concentration of ~66%) with O2 (concentration of ~34%) for medical purpose, such as treatment of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) patients, is introduced. Furthermore, the design principles of a hydrogen inhaler which generates mixture of hydrogen (~66%) with oxygen (~34%) for medical purpose are proposed. With the installation of the liquid blocking module and flame arresters, the air pathway of the hydrogen inhaler is divided by multiple isolation zones to prevent any unexpected explosion propagating from one zone to the other. An integrated filtering/cycling module is utilized to purify the impurity, and cool down the temperature of the electrolytic module to reduce the risk of the explosion. Moreover, a nebulizer is provided to selectively atomize the water into vapor which is then mixed with the filtered hydrogen-oxygen mix gas, such that the static electricity of a substance hardly occurs to reduce the risk of the explosion. Furthermore, hydrogen concentration detector is installed to reduce the risk of hydrogen leakage. Result shows that the hydrogen inhaler implementing the aforesaid design rules could effectively inhibit the explosion, even ignition at the outset of the hydrogen inhaler which outputs hydrogen-oxygen gas (approximately 66% hydrogen: 34% oxygen).

Home oxygen therapy after hospital discharge.

Home oxygen therapy is increasingly prescribed for various conditions in the neonatal period, particularly for infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Due to limited evidence on indication, minimal target oxygen saturation, monitoring, application and discontinuation of home oxygen therapy clinical practice varies widely throughout the world. International guidelines provide recommendations mostly on the basis of nonsystematic clinical observations. Most relevant points for the clinical management of home oxygen therapy include a minimal target oxygen saturation of equal to or greater than 93%, the provision of a home monitoring of oxygen saturation ideally with a memory function, and the conduct of continuous overnight oximetry or polysomnography during weaning from supplemental oxygen. This review summarizes relevant literature as well as existing guidelines and recommendations on home oxygen therapy to aid clinicians in the management of these patients and identifies areas for future research.

A multidisciplinary quality improvement effort to reduce bronchopulmonary dysplasia incidence.

BACKGROUND: Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD) is the most common prematurity complication. Although several practices have been proposed for BPD prevention, none of these in isolation prevent BPD. METHODS: Our initiative focused on two key drivers: oxygen management and noninvasive ventilation strategies. We created best practice guidelines and followed outcome measures using Shewhart control charts. RESULTS: PDSAs of protocols preceded a large-scale rollout of a "0.21 by 28" campaign in 2014 leading to a special cause reduction in the "any BPD" rate, and a decrease in severe BPD (from 57 to 29%). At the end of 2017, we reinvigorated the project, which led to dramatic decreases in the "any BPD" rate to 41% and the "severe BPD" rate to 21%. CONCLUSIONS: A multidisciplinary QI initiative focused on process improvement geared towards the pathophysiological contributors of BPD has successfully reduced the rate of BPD in an all referral level IV NICU.

Literature review of clinical benefits and reasons to prescribe palliative oxygen therapy in non-hypoxaemic patients.

AIMS:: to review current guidelines and studies available to health professionals in the UK and explore the literature to identify reasons for the prescription of palliative oxygen therapy in non-hypoxaemic patients. BACKGROUND:: oxygen therapy is often associated with the palliative treatment for breathlessness. Although prescription guidelines are available and the risks of oxygen therapy are known, the therapy is still prescribed for non-hypoxaemic patients. DESIGN:: a literature search was conducted using relevant databases. Cited evidence from published guidelines was also consulted. RESULTS:: the findings suggest that oxygen is no more effective than room air for treating dyspnoea for non-hypoxaemic patients, although two small studies of self-reported benefits from patients and carers indicate different perceptions of need. CONCLUSION:: the findings suggest that there is a knowledge gap with regards understanding the reasons for the prescription of oxygen therapy for non-hypoxaemic patients.

Current Ventilator and Oxygen Management during General Anesthesia: A Multicenter, Cross-sectional Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative oxygen management is poorly understood. It was hypothesized that potentially preventable hyperoxemia and substantial oxygen exposure would be common during general anesthesia. METHODS: A multicenter, cross-sectional study was conducted to describe current ventilator management, particularly oxygen management, during general anesthesia in Japan. All adult patients (16 yr old or older) who received general anesthesia over 5 consecutive days in 2015 at 43 participating hospitals were identified. Ventilator settings and vital signs were collected 1 h after the induction of general anesthesia. We determined the prevalence of potentially preventable hyperoxemia (oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry of more than 98%, despite fractional inspired oxygen tension of more than 0.21) and the risk factors for potentially substantial oxygen exposure (fractional inspired oxygen tension of more than 0.5, despite oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry of more than 92%). RESULTS: A total of 1,786 patients were found eligible, and 1,498 completed the study. Fractional inspired oxygen tension was between 0.31 and 0.6 in 1,385 patients (92%), whereas it was less than or equal to 0.3 in very few patients (1%). Most patients (83%) were exposed to potentially preventable hyperoxemia, and 32% had potentially substantial oxygen exposure. In multivariable analysis, old age, emergency surgery, and one-lung ventilation were independently associated with increased potentially substantial oxygen exposure, whereas use of volume control ventilation and high positive end-expiratory pressure levels were associated with decreased potentially substantial oxygen exposure. One-lung ventilation was particularly a strong risk factor for potentially substantial oxygen exposure (adjusted odds ratio, 13.35; 95% CI, 7.24 to 24.60). CONCLUSIONS: Potentially preventable hyperoxemia and substantial oxygen exposure are common during general anesthesia, especially during one-lung ventilation. Future research should explore the safety and feasibility of a more conservative approach for intraoperative oxygen therapy.

Impact of the Neonatal Resuscitation Program-Recommended Low Oxygen Strategy on Outcomes of Infants Born Preterm.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of the Neonatal Resuscitation Program (NRP)-recommended low oxygen strategy (LOX) on neonatal morbidities, mortality, and neurodevelopmental outcomes in neonates born preterm. STUDY DESIGN: In March 2011, Parkland Hospital changed from a high oxygen strategy (HOX) of resuscitation with initial 100% oxygen and targeting 85%-94% oxygen saturation for delivery room resuscitation to a LOX with initial 21% oxygen and titrating oxygen to meet NRP-recommended transitional target saturations. Neonates ≤28 weeks' gestational age born between August 2009 and April 2012 were identified. In this retrospective, observational study, neonates exposed to LOX vs HOX were compared for short-term morbidity, mortality, and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. Regression analysis was performed to control for confounding variables. RESULTS: Of 199 neonates, 110 were resuscitated with HOX and 89 with LOX. Compared with HOX, neonates exposed to LOX had lower oxygen exposure in the delivery room (5.2 ± 1.5 vs 7.8 ± 2.8 [∑FiO2 × time min], P < .01), spent fewer days on oxygen (30 [5, 54] vs 46 [11, 82], P = .01), and had lower odds of developing bronchopulmonary dysplasia (aOR 0.4 [0.2, 0.9]). There was no difference in mortality (17 [20%] vs 20 [18%]), but neonates exposed to LOX had greater motor composite scores on Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-Third edition assessment (91 [85, 97] vs 88 [76, 94], P < .01). CONCLUSION: The NRP-recommended LOX strategy was associated with improved respiratory morbidities and neurodevelopmental outcomes with no increase in mortality. Prospective trials to confirm the optimal oxygen strategy for the resuscitation of neonates born preterm are needed.

Long-Term Oxygen Therapy in COPD Patients Who Do Not Meet the Actual Recommendations.

Chronic respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an increasing problem worldwide. Many patients with severe COPD develop hypoxemic respiratory failure during the natural progression of disease. Long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) is a well-established supportive treatment for COPD and has been shown to improve survival in patients who develop chronic hypoxemic respiratory failure. The degree of hypoxemia is severe when partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) is ≤55 mmHg and moderate if PaO2 is between 56 and 69 mmHg. Although current guidelines consider LTOT only in patients with severe resting hypoxemia, many COPD patients with moderate to severe disease experience moderate hypoxemia at rest or during special circumstances, such as while sleeping or exercising. The efficacy of LTOT in these patients who do not meet the actual recommendations is still a matter of debate, and extensive research is still ongoing to understand the possible benefits of LTOT for survival and/or functional outcomes such as the sensation of dyspnea, exacerbation frequency, hospitalizations, exercise capacity, and quality of life. Despite its frequent use, the administration of "palliative" oxygen does not seem to improve dyspnea except for delivery with high-flow humidified oxygen. This narrative review will focus on current evidence for the effects of LTOT in the presence of moderate hypoxemia at rest, during sleep, or during exercise in COPD.

Oxygen Saturation Targets for Extremely Preterm Infants after the NeOProM Trials.

Five randomized controlled trials comparing lower (85-89%) versus higher (91-95%) pulse oximeter saturation (SpO2) targets for extremely preterm infants have now been reported from the United States of America, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. These trials included more than 4,800 infants, and they provide robust evidence to permit comparison of these target ranges and consider the next steps for clinicians and researchers. The lower SpO2 range was associated with a significant increase in the risk of death. There was no significant difference between the two target ranges in the rate of disability at 18-24 months, including blindness. A significant difference between groups in the risk of the composite primary outcome of death or disability in favour of the higher SpO2 range was mainly attributable to the difference between groups in the risk of death. The lower target range did not reduce bronchopulmonary dysplasia or severe visual impairment, but it did increase the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis requiring surgery or causing death. The trials provide no reason to prefer SpO2 targets below 90% and indicate the importance of more trials to see if a further survival advantage can be identified. The safety of targets above 95% has not been evaluated. The five trials were designed to be similar to facilitate an individual patient data meta-analysis, and this Neonatal Oxygen Prospective Meta-Analysis (NeOProM) may provide further insights.

Difficult decisions: An interpretative phenomenological analysis study of healthcare professionals' perceptions of oxygen therapy in palliative care.

BACKGROUND: The role of oxygen therapy to palliate dyspnoea is controversial. Without a clear evidence base oxygen is commonly prescribed, sometimes to the detriment of patients. This use of oxygen appears to be an entrenched culture, the roots of which remain obscure. AIM: To explore healthcare professionals' perceptions of oxygen therapy in palliative care. DESIGN: Interpretative phenomenological analysis study utilising semi-structured interviews to explore beliefs and behaviours of healthcare professionals regarding palliative oxygen therapy. Data were recorded, transcribed and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: A total of 34 healthcare professionals, including doctors, nurses, pharmacists and paramedics in the United Kingdom, who were involved in prescribing, or administering, oxygen therapy to palliate dyspnoea. RESULTS: Most healthcare professionals in this study were well informed about oxygen therapy; all recognised the role of oxygen in palliative care setting as important. The overarching theme of compassion identified sub-themes of 'comfort', 'do anything and everything' and 'family benefit'. However, the use of oxygen in the palliative care setting was not without its dilemmas, as additional sub-themes of 'controversy', 'doubt' and 'dependency' illustrated. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that oxygen therapy in palliative care poses an on-going dilemma for healthcare professionals striving to provide optimum care. It seems patients and families often expect and welcome oxygen, but the perception of oxygen as a solution to dyspnoea can conflict with healthcare professionals' own doubt and experiences. There appears to be an emotional cost associated with this dilemma and the choices that need to be made.

British Thoracic Society guidelines for home oxygen use in adults.

The British Thoracic Society (BTS) Home Oxygen Guideline provides detailed evidence-based guidance for the use of home oxygen for patients out of hospital. Although the majority of evidence comes from the use of oxygen in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, the scope of the guidance includes patients with a variety of long-term respiratory illnesses and other groups in whom oxygen is currently ordered, such as those with cardiac failure, cancer and end-stage cardiorespiratory disease, terminal illness or cluster headache. It explores the evidence base for the use of different modalities of oxygen therapy and patient-related outcomes such as mortality, symptoms and quality of life. The guideline also makes recommendations for assessment and follow-up protocols, and risk assessments, particularly in the clinically challenging area of home oxygen users who smoke. The guideline development group is aware of the potential for confusion sometimes caused by the current nomenclature for different types of home oxygen, and rather than renaming them, has adopted the approach of clarifying those definitions, and in particular emphasising what is meant by long-term oxygen therapy and palliative oxygen therapy. The home oxygen guideline provides expert consensus opinion in areas where clinical evidence is lacking, and seeks to deliver improved prescribing practice, leading to improved compliance and improved patient outcomes, with consequent increased value to the health service.

Oxygen saturation target range for extremely preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

IMPORTANCE: The optimal oxygen saturation (SpO2) target for extremely preterm infants is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To systematically review evidence evaluating the effect of restricted vs liberal oxygen exposure on morbidity and mortality in extremely preterm infants. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, PubMed, CENTRAL, and CINAHL databases from their inception to March 31, 2014, and abstracts submitted to Pediatric Academic Societies from 2000 to 2014. STUDY SELECTION: All published randomized trials evaluating the effect of restricted (SpO2, 85%-89%) vs liberal (SpO2, 91%-95%) oxygen exposure in preterm infants (<28 weeks' gestation at birth). DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: All meta-analyses were performed using Review Manager 5.2. The Cochrane risk-of-bias tool was used to assess study quality. The summary of the findings and the level of confidence in the estimate of effect were assessed using GRADEpro. Treatment effect was analyzed using a random-effects model. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Death before hospital discharge, death or severe disability before 24 months, death before 24 months, neurodevelopmental outcomes, hearing loss, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, necrotizing enterocolitis, and severe retinopathy of prematurity. RESULTS: Five trials were included in the final synthesis. These studies had a similar design with a prespecified composite outcome of death/disability at 18 to 24 months corrected for prematurity; however, this outcome has not been reported for 2 of the 5 trials. There was no difference in the outcome of death/disability before 24 months (risk ratio [RR], 1.02 [95% CI, 0.92-1.14]). Mortality before 24 months was not different (RR, 1.13 [95% CI, 0.97-1.33]); however, a significant increase in mortality before hospital discharge was found in the restricted oxygen group (RR, 1.18 [95% CI, 1.03-1.36]). The rates of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, neurodevelopmental outcomes, hearing loss, and retinopathy of prematurity were similar between the 2 groups. Necrotizing enterocolitis occurred more frequently in infants on restricted oxygen (RR, 1.24 [95% CI, 1.05-1.47]). Using the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria, we found that the quality of evidence for these outcomes was moderate to low. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Although infants cared for with a liberal oxygen target had significantly lower mortality before hospital discharge than infants cared for with a restricted oxygen target, the quality of evidence for this estimate of effect is low. Necrotizing enterocolitis occurred less frequently in the liberal oxygen group. We found no significant differences in death or disability at 24 months, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, retinopathy of prematurity, neurodevelopmental outcomes, or hearing loss at 24 months.

High-flow nasal cannula oxygen versus non-invasive ventilation in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure undergoing flexible bronchoscopy--a prospective randomised trial.

INTRODUCTION: Critically ill patients with respiratory failure undergoing bronchoscopy have an increased risk of hypoxaemia-related complications. Previous studies have shown that in awake, hypoxaemic patients non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is helpful in preventing gas exchange deterioration during bronchoscopy. An alternative and increasingly used means of oxygen delivery is its application via high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC). This study was conducted to compare HFNC with NIV in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure undergoing flexible bronchoscopy. METHODS: Prospective randomised trial randomising 40 critically ill patients with hypoxaemic respiratory failure to receive either NIV or HFNC during bronchoscopy in the intensive care unit. RESULTS: After the initiation of NIV and HFNC, oxygen levels were significantly higher in the NIV group compared to the HFNC group. Two patients were unable to proceed to bronchoscopy after the institution of HFNC due to progressive hypoxaemia. During bronchoscopy, one patient on HFNC deteriorated due to intravenous sedation requiring non-invasive ventilatory support. Bronchoscopy was well tolerated in all other patients. There were no significant differences between the two groups regarding heart rate, mean arterial pressure and respiratory rate. Three patients in the NIV group and one patient in the HFNC group were intubated within 24 hours after the end of bronchoscopy (P = 0.29). CONCLUSIONS: The application of NIV was superior to HFNC with regard to oxygenation before, during and after bronchoscopy in patients with moderate to severe hypoxaemia. In patients with stable oxygenation under HFNC, subsequent bronchoscopy was well tolerated. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01870765. Registered 30 May 2013.

The implementation and efficacy of the Northwestern High Risk Spine Protocol.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to determine the efficacy and feasibility of implementation of the intraoperative component of a high risk spine (HRS) protocol for improving perioperative patient safety in complex spine fusion surgery. METHODS: In this paired availability study, the total number of red blood cell units transfused was used as a surrogate marker for our management protocol efficacy, and the number of protocol violations was used as a surrogate marker for protocol compliance. RESULTS: The 548 patients (284 traditional vs. 264 HRS protocol) were comparable in all demographics, coexisting diseases, preoperative medications, type of surgery, and number of posterior levels instrumented. However, the surgical duration was 70 minutes shorter in the new group (range, 32-108 minutes shorter; P < 0.0001) and the new protocol patients received a median of 1.1 units less of total red blood cell units (range, 0-2.4 units less; P = 0.006). There were only 7 (2.6%) protocol violations in the new protocol group. CONCLUSIONS: The intraoperative component of the HRS protocol, based on two Do-Confirm checklists that focused on 1) organized communication between intraoperative team members and 2) active maintenance of oxygen delivery and hemostasis appears to maintain a safe intraoperative environment and was readily implemented during a 3-year period.

Poor adherence to guidelines for long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) in two Italian university hospitals.

Long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) improves survival in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and severe hypoxemia. Adherence to LTOT guidelines is problematic, both because efficacy has been demonstrated only in specific groups of COPD patients, and because it implies high costs. Introduces treatment high costs. The aim of our study was to examine retrospectively the adherence to LTOT guidelines in a sample of medical records of patients prescribed LTOT between January 2005 and December 2006 in two Italian university hospitals (Ferrara and Modena). Out of a total of 191 medical records of patients prescribed LTOT, only 157 had adequate clinical data considering the three main criteria for appropriateness (arterial blood gas and/or pulse oximetry measurement, oxygen administration, smoking status). Out of these 157 patients, only 73 (46.5 %) fulfilled all three criteria recommended by the guidelines. Adherence was higher for LTOT prescribed by pulmonologists compared to internists. This survey showed that the adherence to LTOT guidelines in a sample of medical records of patients prescribed LTOT is poor. Considering the high costs and the impact on the patients' quality of life of LTOT, these results suggest that the adherence should be carefully monitored.

Impact of highly concentrated contaminants on the quality of oxygen 93 % produced by pressure swing adsorption.

A zeolite based pressure swing adsorption (PSA) module designed to produce medicinal oxygen with 90 - 96 % oxygen content was exposed to high input concentrations and high total amounts of CO (17.7 %, 44 mol), CO2 (16.5 %, 23 mol), NO2 (0.98 %, 2 mol), NO (6.2 %, 6 mol) and SO2 (4.2 %, 6 mol). In addition the system was operated with up to 35 % argon in the feed gas. An empirical model was developed to describe the dependence of the oxygen concentration in the product on the oxygen concentration in the input. If the oxygen concentration in the feed gas was reduced below 18 % by dilution, the oxygen concentration in the product fell under the 90 % threshold. Additional effects were observed with NO, NO2 and SO2 which are apparently due to chemical reactions on the adsorbent. These effects consisted of a further decrease in the oxygen concentration measured in the product and could not be reversed by excessive regeneration of the module with air. Under the experimental conditions used, only CO was detected in the product. Appropriate CO monitoring of the input gas is considered a possible remedy for PSA modules in order to ascertain the pharmaceutical quality of the oxygen produced.

[Long-term home oxygen therapy in children: evidences and open issues]. / Oxigenoterapia Domiciliária de Longa Duração na Criança: Evidências e Questões em Aberto.

INTRODUCTION: Long-term home oxygen therapy is indicated for patients with chronic hypoxemia. We intend to describe pediatric population on long-term home oxygen therapy followed-up at Pediatric Respiratory Unit of a tertiary care hospital between 2003-2012 and to compare with previous 1991-2000 review; to verify conformity with international and national recommendations and need for specific pediatric national guidelines, non-existent in Portugal. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective, descriptive and comparative study based on clinical files review. Review the guidelines for oxygen therapy in pediatric population. RESULTS: We studied 86 patients (59.3% males). The median age at the beginning of oxygen therapy was 0.0 (0.0-216.0) months, with a median duration of 15.0 (3.0-223.0) months. The most frequent diagnosis was bronchopulmonary dysplasia (53.5%), followed by bronchiolitis obliterans (14.0%), neurologic disorders (10.5%), cystic fibrosis (8.1%), miscellaneous syndromes (5.8%), sickle-cell disease (3.5%), other neonatal lung diseases (2.3%) and interstitial lung diseases (2.3%). Are maintained on follow-up 53 (61.6%) patients, 38 on oxygen therapy; 12 (13.9%) died. The median time of follow-up was 39.5 (1.0-246.0) months, minim on other neonatal lung diseases and maximum on cystic fibrosis. Comparing with previous review, this shows a relative increase in bronchiolitis obliterans and bronchopulmonary dysplasia patients, with increased duration in the latter, and inclusion of neurologic and hematologic patients. DISCUSSION: Prescription of long-term oxygen therapy in pediatric age mainly occurs in specific diseases of infants and pre-school aged. Neurologic and hematologic patients represent new indications, similarly to international publications. CONCLUSION: The knowledge of national reality and pediatric orientations are needed for care plans and rational prescription.

IntroduçÉo: Oxigenoterapia domiciliária de longa duraçÉo está indicada em doentes com hipoxémia crónica. Pretendemos descrever a populaçÉo em programa de oxigenoterapia domiciliária de longa duraçÉo acompanhada numa Unidade de Pneumologia Pediátrica de Hospital Terciário entre 2003-2012 e comparar com revisÉo de 1991-2000; verificar conformidade com orientações nacionais e internacionais, refletindo sobre necessidade de orientações nacionais especificamente pediátricas, inexistentes em Portugal.Material e Métodos: Estudo retrospetivo, descritivo e comparativo por consulta de processo clínico. Pesquisa de orientações sobre oxigenoterapia em idade pediátrica.Resultados: Incluímos 86 doentes (59,3% rapazes). A idade mediana de início da oxigenoterapia foi 0,0 (0,0-216,0) meses e a duraçÉo mediana de 15,0 (3,0-223,0) meses. O diagnóstico mais frequente foi displasia broncopulmonar (53,5%), seguindo-se bronquiolite obliterante (14,0%), doença neurológica (10,5%), fibrose quística (8,1%), síndromes polimalformativas (5,8%), doença de células falciformes (3,5%), outras doenças pulmonares neonatais (2,3%) e doenças pulmonares intersticiais (2,3%). Mantêm acompanhamento 53 (61,6%) doentes, 38 mantendo oxigenoterapia; 12 (13,9%) faleceram. O tempo mediano de seguimento foi 39,5 (1,0-246,0) meses, mínimo nas outras doenças pulmonares neonatais e máximo na fibrose quística. Comparativamente ao estudo anterior revela aumento relativo dos lactentes com bronquiolite obliterante e displasia broncopulmonar, aumento da duraçÉo nestes últimos e inclusÉode doentes neurológicos e hematológicos.DiscussÉo: A prescriçÉo de oxigenoterapia domiciliária de longa duraçÉo em pediatria ocorre sobretudo em doenças específicas dos lactentes e idade pré-escolar. Doentes neurológicos e hematológicos sÉo novos grupos de prescriçÉo, à semelhança da literatura internacional.ConclusÉo: O conhecimento da realidade nacional e orientações pediátricas sÉo relevantes para organizaçÉo de cuidados eprescriçÉo racional.