TRα inhibits arterial renin-angiotensin system expression and prevents cholesterol accumulation in vascular smooth muscle cells.

OBJECTIVES: The tissue renin-angiotensin system (tRAS) plays a key role in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis but is also implicated in atherosclerosis. Thyroid hormone (TH) contributes, via genomic effects, to control of tRAS gene expression in the arterial wall and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). We investigated the specific functions of TH receptors-α and -ß (TRα and TRß) on tRAS gene expression in the aorta and VSMCs, and the potential protective effect of TRα against atherosclerosis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using aorta and cultured aortic VSMCs from TRα and TRß deficient mice, tRAS gene expression was analyzed by determining mRNA levels on real-time PCR. Gene regulation under cholesterol loading mimicking atherosclerosis conditions was also examined in VSMCs in vitro. RESULTS: TRα deletion significantly increased expression of angiotensinogen (AGT) and angiotensin II receptor type 1 subtype a (AT1Ra) at transcriptional level in aorta, a tissue with high TRα expression level. TRα activity thus seems to be required for maintenance of physiological levels of AGTand AT1Raexpression in the arterial wall. In addition, during cholesterol loading, TRα deletion significantly increased cholesterol content in VSMCs, with a weaker decrease in AGTexpression. CONCLUSION: TRα seems to have an inhibitory impact on AGTand AT1Raexpression, and loss of TRα function in TRα0/0 mice increases tRAS expression in the aortic wall. More importantly, TRα deletion significantly increases VSMC cholesterol content. Our results are consistent with a protective role of TRα against atherosclerosis.

Is the Intrinsic Genomic Activity of Thyroxine Relevant In Vivo? Effects on Gene Expression in Primary Cerebrocortical and Neuroblastoma Cells.

BACKGROUND: The possibility that the intrinsic genomic activity of thyroxine (T4) is of physiological relevance has been frequently hypothesized. It might explain gene expression patterns in the brain found in type 2-deiodinase (Dio2)-deficient mice. These mice display normal expression of most thyroid hormone-dependent genes, despite decreased brain triiodothyronine (T3). METHODS: The relative effects of T4 and T3 on gene expression were analyzed in mouse neuro-2a (N2a) cells stably expressing the thyroid hormone receptor α1, and in primary mouse cerebrocortical cells enriched in astrocytes or in neurons. Cortical cells were derived from Dio2-deficient mice to prevent conversion of T4 to T3. T4 and T3 were measured in the media at the beginning and end of incubation, and T4 and T3 antibodies were used to block T4 and T3 action. RESULTS: In all cell types, T4 had intrinsic genomic activity. In N2a cells, T4 activity was higher on negative regulation (1/5th of T3 activity) than on positive regulation (1/40th of T3 activity). T4 activity on positive regulation was dependent on the cell context, and was higher in primary cells than in N2a cells. CONCLUSION: T4 has intrinsic genomic activity. Positive regulation depends on the cell context, and primary cells appear much more sensitive than neuroblastoma cells. In all cells, negative regulation is more sensitive to T4 than positive regulation. These properties may explain the mostly normal gene expression in the brain of Dio2-deficient mice.

Resistance to Thyroid Hormone Alpha in an 18-Month-Old Girl: Clinical, Therapeutic, and Molecular Characteristics.

BACKGROUND: Recently, the first patients with resistance to thyroid hormone alpha (RTHα) due to inactivating mutations in the thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TRα) were identified. These patients are characterized by growth retardation, variable motor and cognitive defects, macrocephaly, and abnormal thyroid function tests. The objective was to characterize a young girl (18 months old) with a mutation in both TRα1 and TRα2, and to study the effects of early levothyroxine (LT4) treatment. METHODS: The patient was assessed clinically and biochemically before and during 12 months of LT4 treatment. In addition, the consequences of the mutation for TRα1/2 receptor function were studied in vitro. RESULTS: At 18 months of age, the patient presented with axial hypotonia, delayed motor development, severe growth retardation, and abnormally elevated triiodothyronine (T3)/thyroxine (T4) ratios. RTHα was suspected, and concomitantly a c.632A>G/p.D211G missense mutation was identified, affecting both the TRα1 and TRα2 proteins. This mutation was also found in the girl's father. LT4 treatment was started, resulting in a marked improvement of her hypotonia, motor skills, and growth. Functionally, the missense mutation led to decreased transcriptional activity of TRα1, which could be overcome by higher T3 levels in vitro. The mutant TRα1 showed a moderate dominant negative activity on wild type (WT) TRα1. In contrast, WT TRα2 and mutant TRα2 had negligible transcriptional activity and showed no dominant-negative effect over TRα1. CONCLUSIONS: This report describes the phenotype of a young RTHα patient with a mild TRα mutation before and during early LT4 treatment. Treatment had beneficial effects on her muscle tone, motor development, and growth.

Different Types of Luciferase Reporters Show Distinct Susceptibility to T3-Evoked Downregulation.

BACKGROUND: The firefly luciferase reporter protein is a crucial tool for studies targeting a broad range of biological questions. Importantly, luciferase assays are also widely used to explore mechanisms underlying thyroid hormone dependent regulation of gene expression. However, it was demonstrated that the firefly luciferase reporter is subject to triiodothyronine (T3)-evoked, promoter independent downregulation that is mediated by the thyroid hormone receptor. Since this effect can interfere with readout accuracy, the study aimed to find luciferase reporters that are not susceptible to this phenomenon. METHODS: Luciferase reporter constructs were generated under the control of a minimal thymidine kinase (TK) promoter and transiently transfected into JEG-3 cells to test their activity upon T3 treatment. RESULTS: Activity of the TK-(dCpG)Luc encoding a synthetic (dCpG)Luciferase and TK-NanoLuc expressing the NanoLuc reporter was not significantly changed by T3 treatment while the firefly luciferase control was suppressed by ∼2.6-fold. T3 also downregulated the activity of Renilla luciferase by ∼30%. CONCLUSIONS: Novel types of luciferase reporters, especially the synthetic (dCpG)Luciferase, can be more accurate to study T3-regulated gene expression than the classical firefly luciferase reporter. Renilla luciferase, a popular transfection control of dual luciferase assays, should be used with caution in conditions with T3 treatment.

Thyroid Hormone Receptor α Plays an Essential Role in Male Skeletal Muscle Myoblast Proliferation, Differentiation, and Response to Injury.

Thyroid hormone plays an essential role in myogenesis, the process required for skeletal muscle development and repair, although the mechanisms have not been established. Skeletal muscle develops from the fusion of precursor myoblasts into myofibers. We have used the C2C12 skeletal muscle myoblast cell line, primary myoblasts, and mouse models of resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) α and ß, to determine the role of thyroid hormone in the regulation of myoblast differentiation. T3, which activates thyroid hormone receptor (TR) α and ß, increased myoblast differentiation whereas GC1, a selective TRß agonist, was minimally effective. Genetic approaches confirmed that TRα plays an important role in normal myoblast proliferation and differentiation and acts through the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway. Myoblasts with TRα knockdown, or derived from RTH-TRα PV (a frame-shift mutation) mice, displayed reduced proliferation and myogenic differentiation. Moreover, skeletal muscle from the TRα1PV mutant mouse had impaired in vivo regeneration after injury. RTH-TRß PV mutant mouse model skeletal muscle and derived primary myoblasts did not have altered proliferation, myogenic differentiation, or response to injury when compared with control. In conclusion, TRα plays an essential role in myoblast homeostasis and provides a potential therapeutic target to enhance skeletal muscle regeneration.

Vascular function of the mesenteric artery isolated from thyroid hormone receptor-α knockout mice.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the consequences of thyroid hormone receptor-α (TRα) disruption on vascular reactivity. METHODS: The activity of superior mesenteric arteries isolated from TRα knockout mice generated in the SV129 background (TRα(0/0)SV) or in a pure C57BL/6 background (TRα(0/0)C57) was compared to that of their corresponding wild-type strains (SV129 or C57BL/6 mice). RESULTS: The wild-type SV129 mice exhibited an impaired acetylcholine (Ach)-induced mesenteric artery relaxation compared to C57BL/6 mice, associated with greater responses to angiotensin II (AII) and phenylephrine (PE). The disruption of TRα decreased the vascular response to sodium nitroprusside and PE in both the SV129 and C57BL/6 genetic backgrounds. Responses to Ach and AII were also blunted, but only in TRα(0/0)C57 mice. The administration of 3,3'5-triiodo-L-thyronine sodium salt (T3) elicited a vasodilatation in C57BL/6 mice even at the lowest concentration (10(-9)M); a maximal relaxation of more than 50% was observed with the concentrations between 10(-9) and 10(-8)M. However, the response to T3 was nearly absent in TRα(0/0)C57 mice. CONCLUSION: TRα is essential for the control of vascular tone, particularly in thyroid hormone-mediated relaxation. The difference in response to Ach observed between the two wild-type mice should be taken into account for interpreting the vascular responses of genetically engineered mice.

Resistance to thyroid hormone caused by a mutation in thyroid hormone receptor (TR)α1 and TRα2: clinical, biochemical, and genetic analyses of three related patients.

BACKGROUND: The thyroid hormone receptor α gene (THRA) transcript is alternatively spliced to generate either thyroid hormone receptor (TR)α1 or a non-hormone-binding variant protein, TRα2, the function of which is unknown. Here, we describe the first patients identified with a mutation in THRA that affects both TRα1 and TRα2, and compare them with patients who have resistance to thyroid hormone owing to a mutation affecting only TRα1, to delineate the relative roles of TRα1 and TRα2. METHODS: We did clinical, biochemical, and genetic analyses of an index case and her two sons. We assessed physical and radiological features, thyroid function, physiological and biochemical markers of thyroid hormone action, and THRA sequence. FINDINGS: The patients presented in childhood with growth failure, developmental delay, and constipation, which improved after treatment with thyroxine, despite normal concentrations of circulating thyroid hormones. They had similar clinical (macrocephaly, broad faces, skin tags, motor dyspraxia, slow speech), biochemical (subnormal ratio of free thyroxine:free tri-iodothyronine [T3], low concentration of total reverse T3, high concentration of creatine kinase, mild anaemia), and radiological (thickened calvarium) features to patients with TRα1-mediated resistance to thyroid hormone, although our patients had a heterozygous mis-sense mutation (Ala263Val) in both TRα1 and TRα2 proteins. The Ala263Val mutant TRα1 inhibited the transcriptional function of normal receptor in a dominant-negative fashion. By contrast, function of Ala263Val mutant TRα2 matched its normal counterpart. In vitro, high concentrations of T3 restored transcriptional activity of Ala263Val mutant TRα1, and reversed the dominant-negative inhibition of its normal counterpart. High concentrations of T3 restored expression of thyroid hormone-responsive target genes in patient-derived blood cells. INTERPRETATION: TRα1 seems to be the principal functional product of the THRA gene. Thyroxine treatment alleviates hormone resistance in patients with mutations affecting this gene, possibly ameliorating the phenotype. These findings will help the diagnosis and treatment of other patients with resistance to thyroid hormone resulting from mutations in THRA. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust, NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Marie Curie Actions, Foundation for Development of Internal Medicine in Europe.

The ability of thyroid hormone receptors to sense t4 as an agonist depends on receptor isoform and on cellular cofactors.

T4 (3,5,3',5'-tetraiodo-l-thyronine) is classically viewed as a prohormone that must be converted to the T3 (3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine) form for biological activity. We first determined that the ability of reporter genes to respond to T4 and to T3 differed for the different thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoforms, with TRα1 generally more responsive to T4 than was TRß1. The response to T4 vs T3 also differed dramatically in different cell types in a manner that could not be attributed to differences in deiodinase activity or in hormone affinity, leading us to examine the role of TR coregulators in this phenomenon. Unexpectedly, several coactivators, such as steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC1) and thyroid hormone receptor-associated protein 220 (TRAP220), were recruited to TRα1 nearly equally by T4 as by T3 in vitro, indicating that TRα1 possesses an innate potential to respond efficiently to T4 as an agonist. In contrast, release of corepressors, such as the nuclear receptor coreceptor NCoRω, from TRα1 by T4 was relatively inefficient, requiring considerably higher concentrations of this ligand than did coactivator recruitment. Our results suggest that cells, by altering the repertoire and abundance of corepressors and coactivators expressed, may regulate their ability to respond to T4, raising the possibility that T4 may function directly as a hormone in specific cellular or physiological contexts.

Cardiac specific effects of thyroid hormone analogues.

There is significant interest in development of thyroid hormone analogues to harness specific properties as therapeutic agents for a variety of clinical indications including obesity, hypercholesterolemia, heart failure, and thyrotoxicosis. To date, most analogues have been designed to target liver specific effects, which can promote weight loss and lipid lowering through either tissue specific uptake or thyroid hormone receptor (TR) ß isoform selectivity at the same time minimizing the unwanted cardiac and bone effects. We have developed a molecular biomarker assay to study the induction of the transcription of the cardiac specific α-myosin heavy chain (MHC) gene as a more sensitive and specific measure of thyroid hormone action on cardiac myocytes. We tested 5 TRß and 1 TRα selective agonists as well as 2 putative TR antagonists in our α-MHC hnRNA assay. Using reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction, we measured the induction of the α-MHC primary transcript in response to administration of drug. The TRα and only 2 of the TRß agonists were highly active, when compared to the effect of T3, at the level of the cardiac myocyte. In addition, our data suggests that the reason that the antagonist NH-3 is not able to block the T3-mediated induction of α-MHC is that it does not get transported into the cardiac myocyte. Our data suggest that this assay will be useful in preclinical studies of the potential cardiac specific effects of thyroid hormone analogues and that predictions of function based on structure are not necessarily accurate or complete.

Screening of agonistic activities against four nuclear receptors in wastewater treatment plants in Japan using a yeast two-hybrid assay.

To assess the potential endocrine disruptive effects through multiple nuclear receptors (NRs), especially non-steroidal NRs, in municipal wastewater, we examined the agonistic activities on four NRs (estrogen receptor alpha, thyroid hormone receptor alpha, retinoic acid receptor alpha and retinoid X receptor alpha) of untreated and treated wastewater from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Japan using a yeast two-hybrid assay. Investigation of the influent and effluent of seven WWTPs revealed that agonistic activities against steroidal and non-steroidal NRs were always detected in the influents and partially remained in the effluents. Further investigation of four WWTPs employing conventional activated sludge, pseudo-anoxic-oxic, anoxic-oxic and anaerobic-anoxic-oxic processes revealed that the ability to reduce the agonistic activity against each of the four NRs varies depending on the treatment process. These results indicated that municipal wastewater in Japan commonly contains endocrine disrupting chemicals that exert agonistic activities on steroidal and non-steroidal NRs, and that some of these chemicals are released into the natural aquatic environment. Although the results obtained in yeast assays suggested that measured levels of non-steroidal NR agonists in the effluent of WWTPs were not likely to cause any biological effect, further study is required to assess their possible risks in detail.

In vivo activity of the thyroid hormone receptor beta- and α-selective agonists GC-24 and CO23 on rat liver, heart, and brain.

Thyroid hormone analogs with selective actions through specific thyroid hormone receptor (TR) subtypes are of great interest. They might offer the possibility of mimicking physiological actions of thyroid hormone with receptor subtype or tissue specificity with therapeutic aims. They are also pharmacological tools to dissect biochemical pathways mediated by specific receptor subtypes, in a complementary way to mouse genetic modifications. In this work, we studied the in vivo activity in developing rats of two thyroid hormone agonists, the TRß-selective GC-24 and the TRα-selective CO23. Our principal goal was to check whether these compounds were active in the rat brain. Analog activity was assessed by measuring the expression of thyroid hormone target genes in liver, heart, and brain, after administration to hypothyroid rats. GC-24 was very selective for TRß and lacked activity on the brain. On the other hand, CO23 was active in liver, heart, and brain on genes regulated by either TRα or TRß. This compound, previously shown to be TRα-selective in tadpoles, displayed no selectivity in the rat in vivo.

Lipid lowering with thyroid hormone and thyromimetics.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To summarize how thyroid hormones exert their effects on lipid metabolism through specific interaction with their nuclear receptors, to review studies of the effects of new and selective thyromimetic drugs in animals and humans and to identify important questions for future research. RECENT FINDINGS: Thyroid hormones exert their effects by stimulation of thyroid hormone receptors that have different tissue distribution and metabolic targets. TRß is predominant in liver and mainly responsible for effects on cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism, whereas TRα is most important in fat, muscle, and heart. Thyroid hormone analogs (thyromimetics, tiromes) have been developed that activate TRß and are selectively taken up and/or activated by the liver. Such compounds stimulate hepatic LDL receptors, cholesterol elimination as bile acids and cholesterol, and presumably promote reverse cholesterol transport. In animals, they retard atherosclerosis progression. In humans, eprotirome exerts favorable lipid-modulating effects while lacking thyroid hormone-related side-effects and maintaining normal hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid feedback. When added to statins, it reduces LDL and non-HDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and triglycerides as well as lipoprotein (a). SUMMARY: Liver-specific and ß-selective thyroid hormone analogs activate a spectrum of favorable thyroid hormone actions that optimize lipid metabolism and promote cholesterol elimination. Further studies should establish long-term safety and potential clinical usefulness of thyromimetics.

Sobetirome: a case history of bench-to-clinic drug discovery and development.

Sobetirome, also known as GC-1 and QRX-431, is a member of a class of compounds known as selective thyromimetics (Scanlan et al., Curr Opin Drug Discov Dev 4:614-622). These compounds are synthetic structural analogs of thyroid hormone that have tissue-specific thyroid hormone actions. Many of the compounds in this class, including sobetirome, also are subtype-selective thyroid hormone receptor (TR) agonists. Sobetirome selectively binds to and activates TRbeta over TRalpha and this receptor selectivity led to the hypothesis that sobetirome would lower cholesterol through activation of liver TRbeta without stimulating cardiac function through TRalpha activation in the heart. The tissue selective thyromimetic properties of sobetirome have been demonstrated in numerous animal models, which led to its clinical development as a novel cholesterol-lowering agent. This review will describe the discovery and development journey of sobetirome as a case history.

Nuclear hormone receptor activity of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their hydroxylated and methoxylated metabolites in transactivation assays using Chinese hamster ovary cells.

BACKGROUND: An increasing number of studies are reporting the existence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their hydroxylated (HO) and methoxylated (MeO) metabolites in the environment and in tissues from wildlife and humans. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to characterize and compare the agonistic and antagonistic activities of principle PBDE congeners and their HO and MeO metabolites against human nuclear hormone receptors. METHODS: We tested the hormone receptor activities of estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha), ERbeta, androgen receptor (AR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), thyroid hormone receptor alpha(1) (TRalpha(1)), and TRbeta(1) against PBDE congeners BDEs 15, 28, 47, 85, 99, 100, 153, and 209, four para-HO-PBDEs, and four para-MeO-PBDEs by highly sensitive reporter gene assays using Chinese hamster ovary cells. RESULTS: Of the 16 compounds tested, 6 and 2 showed agonistic activities in the ERalpha and ERbeta assays, respectively, and 6 and 6 showed antagonistic activities in these assays. 4'-HO-BDE-17 showed the most potent estrogenic activity via ERalpha/beta, and 4'-HO-BDE-49 showed the most potent anti estrogenic activity via ERalpha/beta. In the AR assay, 13 compounds showed antagonistic activity, with 4'-HO-BDE-17 in particular inhibiting AR-mediated transcriptional activity at low concentrations in the order of 10(-8) M. In the GR assay, seven compounds, including two HO-PBDEs and two MeO-PBDEs, showed weak antagonistic activity. In the TRalpha(1) and TRbeta(1) assays, only 4-HO-BDE-90 showed weak antagonistic activity. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results suggest that PBDEs and their metabolites might have multiple endocrine-disrupting effects via nuclear hormone receptors, and para-HO-PBDEs, in particular, possess more potent receptor activities compared with those of the parent PBDEs and corresponding para-MeO-PBDEs.

Development of a thyroid hormone receptor targeting conjugate.

Molecular conjugates of hormone receptor-ligands with molecular probes or functional domains are finding diverse applications in chemical biology. Whereas many examples of hormone conjugates that target steroid hormone receptors have been reported, practical ligand conjugates that target the nuclear thyroid hormone receptor (TRbeta) are lacking. TR-targeting conjugate scaffolds based on the ligands GC-1 and NH-2 and the natural ligand triiodothyronine (T3) were synthesized and evaluated in vitro and in cellular assays. Whereas the T3 or GC-1 based conjugates did not bind TRbeta with high affinity, the NH-2 inspired fluorescein-conjugate JZ01 showed low nanomolar affinity for TRbeta and could be used as a nonradiometric probe for ligand binding. A related analogue JZ07 was a potent TR antagonist that is 13-fold selective for TRbeta over TRalpha. JZ01 localizes in the nuclei of TRbeta expressing cells and may serve as a prototype for other TR-targeting conjugates.

Effects of thyroid hormone analogs on lipid metabolism and thermogenesis.

Thyroid hormone affects in a myriad of biological processes such as development, growth, and metabolic control. Triiodothyronine (T3) is the biologically active form of thyroid hormone that acts through nuclear receptors, TRalpha and TRbeta, regulating gene expression. Given that the distribution of these receptors is heterogeneous amongst the different tissues, it is not surprising that some physiological effects of T3 are isoform specific. For example, while TRalpha is the dominant receptor in the brain and skeletal system and mediates most of the synergism between T3 and the sympathetic signaling pathway in the heart, TRbeta is abundant in liver and is probably the isoform that mediates most of the T3 effects on lipid metabolism. Thus, it makes sense to develop compounds that selectively act on either one of the TRs, allowing for the activation of specific T3-dependent pathways. This article reviews the recent progress made in this area, focusing on the physiological effects of compounds that lower serum cholesterol and decrease fat mass, as they spare skeletal muscle and bone masses, as well as the heart. The available studies indicate that achieving selective activation of different TR-mediated pathways is a promising strategy for treating lipid disorders and obesity.

A point mutation in the activation function 2 domain of thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 expressed after CRE-mediated recombination partially recapitulates hypothyroidism.

Thyroid hormones act directly on transcription by binding to TRalpha1, TRbeta1, and TRbeta2 nuclear receptors, regulating many aspects of postnatal development and homeostasis. To analyze precisely the implication of the widely expressed TRalpha1 isoform in this pleiotropic action, we have generated transgenic mice with a point mutation in the TRalpha1 coding sequence, which is expressed only after CRE/loxP-mediated DNA recombination. The amino acid change prevents interaction between TRalpha1 and histone acetyltransferase coactivators and the release of corepressors. Early expression of this dominant-negative receptor deeply affects postnatal development and adult homeostasis, recapitulating many aspects of congenital and adult hypothyroidism, except in tissues and cells where TRbeta1 and TRbeta2 are predominantly expressed. Both respective abundance and intrinsic properties of TRalpha1 and TRbeta1/2 seem to govern specificity of action.

Thyroid hormone response element organization dictates the composition of active receptor.

Thyroid hormone (triiodothyronine, T(3)) is known to activate transcription by binding heterodimers of thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs). RXR-TRs bind to T(3) response elements (TREs) composed of direct repeats of the sequence AGGTCA spaced by four nucleotides (DR-4). In other TREs, however, the half-sites can be arranged as inverted palindromes and palindromes (Pal). Here we show that TR homodimers and monomers activate transcription from representative TREs with alternate half-site placements. TR beta activates transcription more efficiently than TR alpha at an inverted palindrome (F2), and this correlates with preferential TR beta homodimer formation at F2 in vitro. Furthermore, reconstruction of TR transcription complexes in yeast indicates that TR beta homodimers are active at F2, whereas RXR-TRs are active at DR-4 and Pal. Finally, analysis of TR beta mutations that block homodimer and/or heterodimer formation reveal TRE-selective requirements for these surfaces in mammalian cells, which suggest that TR beta homodimers are active at F2, RXR-TRs at DR-4, and TR monomers at Pal. TR beta requires higher levels of hormone for activation at F2 than other TREs, and this differential effect is abolished by a dimer surface mutation suggesting that it is related to composition of the TR.TRE complex. We propose that interactions of particular TR oligomers with different elements play unappreciated roles in TRE-selective actions of liganded TRs in vivo.

Endocrine effects generated by photooxidation of coplanar biphenyls in water using titanium dioxide.

The oxidative photodegradation behaviors of selected three coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), (CB77, CB81, and CB169) using titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) in water were investigated. The main purposes were to clarify the structural relation between the original PCBs and the intermediates derived by TiO(2) oxidation and to evaluate the estrogenic and thyroid hormonal activity in the treated three coplanar PCBs during the oxidative reactions. Approximately 90% of the three coplanar PCBs decomposed within 180 min. Intermediates from the decomposition of the three coplanar PCBs, such as some hydroxylated-PCBs (OH-PCBs), carboxylic intermediates, phenolic intermediates, and other intermediates produced by the cleavage of a benzene ring were identified and quantified. In the degradation pathways, the produced amounts of OH-PCBs increased within 60 min of irradiation time. The estrogenic activity and thyroid hormonal activity of the intermediates from the three coplanar PCBs in water at 0, 60, 120, 180 and 240 min of irradiation time were assessed by using a yeast two-hybrid assay system for human estrogen receptor alpha (hERalpha) and human thyroid hormone receptor alpha (hTRalpha). The maximal estrogenic activities were induced by the solutions of decomposed PCBs with irradiation time at 60-120 min similar and slightly lower than those after the irradiation time. We found that the solutions occuring during the irradiation times of 60-120 min contained several 4-OH-PCBs substituted with OH and Cl at para- and para'-positions having estrogenic activity. The thyroid hormonal activity was not detected in the decomposed three coplanar PCBs solutions.