Transcriptional Output Transiently Spikes Upon Mitotic Exit.

The pulsatile nature of gene activity has recently emerged as a general property of the transcriptional process. It has been shown that the frequency and amplitude of transcriptional bursts can be subjected to extrinsic regulation. Here we have investigated if these parameters were constant throughout the cell cycle using the single molecule RNA FISH technique. We found evidence of transcriptional spikes upon mitotic exit in three different human cell lines. Recording of cell growth prior to hybridization and immuno-RNA FISH analysis revealed that these spikes were short-lived and subsided before completion of cytokinesis. The transient post-mitotic increase in transcriptional output was found to be the result of cells displaying a higher number of active alleles and/or an increased number of nascent transcripts per active allele, indicating that both the burst fraction and the amplitude of individual bursts can be increased upon mitotic exit. Our results further suggest that distinct regulatory mechanisms are at work shortly after mitotic exit and during the rest of interphase. We speculate that transcriptional spikes are associated with chromatin decondensation, a hallmark of post-mitotic cells that might alter the dynamics of transcriptional regulators and effectors.

Enhanced sandwich immunoassay using antibody-functionalized magnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles for extraction and detection of soluble transferrin receptor on a photonic crystal biosensor.

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) has detrimental effects on individuals and societies worldwide. A standard sandwich assay (SA) for the detection of soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), a biomarker of IDA, on a photonic crystal (PC) biosensor was established, but it was susceptible to non-specific signals from complex matrixes. In this study, iron-oxide nanoparticles (fAb-IONs) were used as magnetic immuno-probes to bind sTfR and minimize non-specific signals, while enhancing detection on the PC biosensor. This inverse sandwich assay (IA) method completely bound sTfR with low variability (<4% RSD) in buffer and allowed for its accurate and precise detection in sera (Liquichek™ control sera) on the PC biosensor using two certified ELISAs as reference methods. A linear dose-response curve was elicited at the fAb-IONs concentration in which the theoretical binding ratio (sTfR:fAb-IONs) was calculated to be <1 on the IA. The LoDs for sTfR in the SA and IA were similar (P>0.05) at 14 and 21 µg/mL, respectively. The inherent imprecision of the IA and reference ELISAs was σ(δ)=0.45 µg/mL and the mean biases for Liquichek™ 1, 2 and 3 were 0.18, 0.19 and -0.04 µg/mL, respectively. Whereas the inherent imprecision of the SA and reference ELISAs was σ(δ)=0.52 µg/mL and the biases for Liquichek™ 1, 2 and 3 were 0.66, 0.14 and -0.67 µg/mL, respectively. Thus, unlike the SA, the IA method measures sTfR with the same bias as the reference ELISAs. Combined magnetic separation and detection of nutrition biomarkers on PC biosensors represents a facile method for their accurate and reliable quantification in complex matrixes.

A convenient method for hTfR1 inclusion body purification.

Human transferrin receptor, referred as hTfR1, is ubiquitously expressed at low levels in most normal human tissues; however, the expression level of hTfR1 at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and in tumor tissues is relatively higher. hTfR1 is a type II homodimeric transmembrane protein. The extracellular domain of hTfR1 consists of three domains: helical domain, apical, and protease-like domain. In order to prepare hTfR1 antibody, which can be utilized to deliver drugs across BBB through receptor-mediated endocytosis, we began to express the nonligand binding domain of hTfR1 in Escherichia coli BL21 Transetta (DE3). The TfR1 gene was first obtained from HepG2 cells by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and then inserted into pET 32a(c+) vector. The protein was expressed in the form of inclusion body with extremely high purity by the E. coli BL21 Transetta (DE3), and the purity was further improved by size-exclusion chromatography. The Western blot test indicated that the recombinant protein was TfR1 as expected. Above all, this report provided a convenient protocol that could be fulfilled in order to prepare hTfR1 inclusion body, which failed to be purified by an Ni(2+) affinity column.

Cobalt and the iron acquisition pathway: competition towards interaction with receptor 1.

During iron acquisition by the cell, complete homodimeric transferrin receptor 1 in an unknown state (R1) binds iron-loaded human serum apotransferrin in an unknown state (T) and allows its internalization in the cytoplasm. T also forms complexes with metals other than iron. Are these metals incorporated by the iron acquisition pathway and how can other proteins interact with R1? We report here a four-step mechanism for cobalt(III) transfer from CoNtaCO(3)(2-) to T and analyze the interaction of cobalt-loaded transferrin with R1. The first step in cobalt uptake by T is a fast transfer of Co(3+) and CO(3)(2-) from CoNtaCO(3)(2-) to the metal-binding site in the C-lobe of T: direct rate constant, k(1)=(1.1+/-0.1) x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1); reverse rate constant, k(-1)=(1.9+/-0.6) x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1); and equilibrium constant, K=1.7+/-0.7. This step is followed by a proton-assisted conformational change of the C-lobe: direct rate constant, k(2)=(3+/-0.3) x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1); reverse rate constant, k(-2)=(1.6+/-0.3) x 10(-2) s(-1); and equilibrium constant, K(2a)=5.3+/-1.5 nM. The two final steps are slow changes in the conformation of the protein (0.5 h and 72 h), which allow it to achieve its final thermodynamic state and also to acquire second cobalt. The cobalt-saturated transferrin in an unknown state (TCo(2)) interacts with R1 in two different steps. The first is an ultra-fast interaction of the C-lobe of TCo(2) with the helical domain of R1: direct rate constant, k(3)=(4.4+/-0.6)x10(10) M(-1) s(-1); reverse rate constant, k(-3)=(3.6+/-0.6) x 10(4) s(-1); and dissociation constant, K(1d)=0.82+/-0.25 muM. The second is a very slow interaction of the N-lobe of TCo(2) with the protease-like domain of R1. This increases the stability of the protein-protein adduct by 30-fold with an average overall dissociation constant K(d)=25+/-10 nM. The main trigger in the R1-mediated iron acquisition is the ultra-fast interaction of the metal-loaded C-lobe of T with R1. This step is much faster than endocytosis, which in turn is much faster than the interaction of the N-lobe of T with the protease-like domain. This can explain why other metal-loaded transferrins or a protein such as HFE-with a lower affinity for R1 than iron-saturated transferrin but with, however, similar or higher affinities for the helical domain than the C-lobe-competes with iron-saturated transferrin in an unknown state towards interaction with R1.

Purification and identification of a 7.6-kDa protein in media conditioned by superinvasive cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Selection of the human drug sensitive and invasive cell line (MDA-MB-435S-F) with the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel, resulted in the development of drug resistant cell lines displaying enhanced invasion-related characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Serum-free conditioned media from the human cancer drug-sensitive and invasive cell line (MDA-MB-435S-F) and its paclitaxel-resistant superinvasive variant (MDA-MB-435S-F/Taxol10p4pSI) were analyzed using Surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF MS). RESULTS: A differentially expressed protein was observed at 7.6 kDa, which was 4-fold up-regulated in MDA-MB-435S-F/Taxol10p4pSI. The differentially expressed protein was identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/TOF MS), as a fragment of bovine transferrin. The transferrin receptor was also found to be overexpressed in the superinvasive cell line. CONCLUSION: Cleavage of serum proteins such as transferrin could provide a valuable source of markers for malignant tumours and could also play a role in aspects of cancer pathogenesis, such as tumour cachexia.

Localization of the iron-regulatory proteins hemojuvelin and transferrin receptor 2 to the basolateral membrane domain of hepatocytes.

The newly discovered proteins hemojuvelin (Hjv) and transferrin receptor type 2 (TfR2) are involved in iron metabolism. Mutations in the Hjv and TfR2 gene cause hemochromatosis. We investigated the expression and cellular localization of Hjv and TfR2 in rat and human liver. The expression of Hjv and TfR2 was shown on mRNA and protein level by RT-PCR and immunoblot experiments. Their cellular localization was studied by immunofluorescence with antibodies raised against Hjv and TfR2. Hjv and TfR2 are present in human and rat liver and in primary human hepatocytes. Antisera raised against Hjv identified immunoreactive proteins with an apparent size of 44 and 46 kDa in immunoblot experiments of rat and human liver extracts, which are in accordance with the putative membrane-bound and cleaved soluble forms of this protein, respectively. TfR2 was detected as a 105 kDa protein corresponding to the predicted size of glycosylated TfR2 monomers. In immunofluorescence experiments, Hjv and TfR2 were found in rat liver only in hepatocytes. At the subcellular level, both proteins were predominantly localized to the basolateral membrane domain of hepatocytes. The localization of Hjv and TfR2 at the same membrane domain renders a functional interaction of these two proteins in iron homeostasis possible.

Profiling of the CD4 receptor complex proteins.

Intermolecular complexes produced by the CD4 molecule were studied. To preserve the integrity of weak protein-protein interactions of the CD4 antigen, cells were lysed in a mild nonionic detergent Brij97. Protein constituents of the complex were identified by our previously proposed fluorescence immunoprecipitation assay with subsequent mass spectrometry. In total, 26 proteins associated with CD4 were identified on CEM cells. The CD4 complex included the following major components: tyrosine phosphatase CD45, transferrin receptor CD71, tyrosine kinase Lck, and a lymphocyte phosphatase-associated phosphoprotein LPAP. The CD4 complex also contained some components of cytoskeleton and heat shock proteins. The association between CD4, CD71, and CD45 molecules was confirmed by immunoblotting. The CD4 complexes were not detected on the U937 myeloid cells lacking Lck and LPAP. We attempted to quantitatively characterize the CD4 complex composition.

Cellubrevin is present in the basolateral endocytic compartment of hepatocytes and follows the transcytotic pathway after IgA internalization.

The endocytic compartment of polarized cells is organized in basolateral and apical endosomes plus those endocytic structures specialized in recycling and transcytosis, which are still poorly characterized. The complexity of the various populations of endosomes has been demonstrated by the exquisite repertoire of endogenous proteins. In this study we examined the distribution of cellubrevin in the endocytic compartment of hepatocytes, since its intracellular location and function in polarized cells are largely unknown. Highly purified rat liver endosomes were isolated from estradiol-treated rats, and the early/sorting endosomal fraction was further subfractionated in a multistep sucrose density gradient, and studied. Analysis of dissected endosomal fractions showed that cellubrevin was located in early/sorting endosomes, with Rab4, annexins II and VI, and transferrin receptor, but in a specific subpopulation of these early endosomes with the same density range as pIgA and Raf-1. Interestingly, only in those isolated endosomal fractions, endosomes enriched in transcytotic structures (of livers loaded with IgA), the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor specifically co-immunoprecipitated with cellubrevin. In addition, confocal and immuno-electron microscopy identification of cellubrevin in tubular structures underneath the sinusoidal plasma membrane together with the re-organization of cellubrevin, in the endocytic compartment, after the IgA loading, strongly suggest the involvement of cellubrevin in the transcytosis of pIgA.

Membrane trafficking regulates the activity of the human dopamine transporter.

The trafficking of synaptic proteins is unquestionably a major determinant of the properties of synaptic transmission. Here, we present a detailed analysis of the downregulation and intracellular trafficking of the cocaine- and amphetamine-sensitive dopamine transporter (DAT), a presynaptic plasma membrane protein responsible for the regulation of extracellular DA concentrations. Using PC12 cells stably transfected with human DAT cDNA, we observe that phorbol ester activation of protein kinase C (PKC) results in decreased transporter capacity and a parallel decrease in the amount of DAT on the cell surface that is attributable to intracellular transporter sequestration. After internalization, DAT diverges to the recycling, as opposed to the degradative, arm of the endocytic pathway. This study demonstrates, for the first time, DAT endocytosis, establishes the pathways through which DAT traffics both at steady state and in response to PKC activation, and suggests that DAT recycling is likely to occur.

Thermally induced aggregation of human transferrin receptor studied by light-scattering techniques.

The thermal stability of transferrin receptor isolated from human placenta in detergent-free solution has been investigated by static light-scattering and photon correlation spectroscopy. In detergent-free solution at 293.2 K, human transferrin receptor (hTfR) forms stable associates with a hydrodynamic radius of 16 nm. With increasing temperature the particles get more compact, above 340 K a phase transition takes, place and spontaneous aggregation of the receptor occurs. Under these conditions large clusters are formed that lead to fractal aggregates, coexisting with dendritic crystalline structures. The experimental findings are compatible with a model, which involves a reaction limited cluster-cluster aggregation mechanism in conjunction with a nucleation process. The molar enthalpy change associated with the phase transition was determined to be (1860 +/- 150) kJ/mol(-1) at a transition temperature of (341.3 +/- 0.2) K.

A rapid redistribution of transferrin receptors to the cell surface of L2C lymphocytes upon fixation of holoform transferrin.

The internalization and recycling kinetics of transferrin receptors in leukemic lymphocytes (L2C) differed in the absence or presence of ligand. At 37 degrees C in the absence of ligand, transferrin receptors were mainly distributed internaly. We demonstrated, using a sepharose-bead-Tf complex, the rapid recycling of unoccupied internal transferrin receptors was correlated with ligand binding to surface receptors. The recycling amplitude was related to the occupancy of iron ligated transferrin to plasma membrane surface receptors. Contrary to the results obtained with other cells, redistribution of Tf receptors was not triggered by binding of other ligands to their receptors.

Difference in Legionella pneumophila growth permissiveness between J774.1 murine macrophage-like JA-4 cells and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-resistant mutant cells, LPS1916, after stimulation with LPS.

To elucidate the role of the oxidative burst in macrophage resistance to Legionella infection, we examined a murine macrophage-like cell line, J774.1, for permissiveness to Legionella growth, using a mutant that has a selective defect in the oxidative burst after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 was infected into J774.1 monolayers, and then the extent of bacterial growth was estimated by a CFU assay. Both the parental cell line, JA-4, and the LPS-resistant mutant, LPS1916, were permissive for Legionella growth but became nonpermissive after pretreatment with gamma interferon. However, pretreatment of LPS1916 cells with LPS failed to inhibit bacterial growth, although LPS-treated JA-4 cells exhibited inhibited multiplication of the bacteria. The bacterial growth inhibition in JA-4 and mutant LPS1916 cells was correlated with the extent of the oxidative burst in the cells, as judged by cytochrome c reduction but not nitrite production. Neither transferrin receptor expression nor the iron content in JA-4 and LPS1916 cells, with or without LPS treatment, was correlated with suppression of Legionella growth. These results suggest that the restriction of Legionella growth in J774.1 cells is due to a bactericidal effect of the oxidative burst rather than reduction of the iron supply to the intracellular bacteria and that the effectors are reactive oxygen intermediates and not reactive nitrogen intermediates.

A glycolipid-anchored prion protein is endocytosed via clathrin-coated pits.

The cellular prion protein (PrPc) is a glycolipid-anchored, cell surface protein of unknown function, a posttranslationally modified isoform of which PrPSc is involved in the pathogenesis of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, scrapie, and other spongiform encephalopathies. We have shown previously that chPrP, a chicken homologue of mammalian PrPC, constitutively cycles between the cell surface and an endocytic compartment, with a transit time of approximately 60 min in cultured neuroblastoma cells. We now report that endocytosis of chPrP is mediated by clathrin-coated pits. Immunogold labeling of neuroblastoma cells demonstrates that the concentration of chPrP within 0.05 microns of coated pits is 3-5 times higher than over other areas of the plasma membrane. Moreover, gold particles can be seen within coated vesicles and deeply invaginated coated pits that are in the process of pinching off from the plasma membrane. ChPrP is also localized to coated pits in primary cultures of neurons and glia, and is found in coated vesicles purified from chicken brain. Finally, internalization of chPrP is reduced by 70% after neuroblastoma cells are incubated in hypertonic medium, a treatment that inhibits endocytosis by disrupting clathrin lattices. Caveolae, plasmalemmal invaginations in which several other glycolipid-anchored proteins are concentrated, are not seen in neuroblastoma cells analyzed by thin-section or deep-etch electron microscopy. Moreover, these cells do not express detectable levels of caveolin, a caveolar coat protein. Since chPrP lacks a cytoplasmic domain that could interact directly with the intracellular components of clathrin-coated pits, we propose that the polypeptide chain of chPrP associates with the extracellular domain of a transmembrane protein that contains a coated pit internalization signal.

Origin of a soluble truncated transferrin receptor.

It has recently become evident that elevation of reticulocytes in the circulation of several species, including humans, leads to the formation of a noncellular transferrin receptor (TFR). In humans, the majority of the released receptor is in truncated form (Shih et al: J Biol Chem 265:19077, 1990). In other species (sheep, rat, chicken) the receptor is associated with a vesicle (exosome) and is full length (Johnstone et al: J Cell Physiol 147:27, 1991). In this report we show that in sheep reticulocytes incubated in vitro, the majority (approximately 75%) of the released receptor is of native size and is exosome associated. A fraction (approximately 25%) is a truncated form of approximately 80 Kd corresponding to the exofacial domain of the TFR. Herein we also address the question of whether the truncated receptor originates by proteolytic cleavage directly from the cell surface or by cleavage from exosomes. Using surface 125I-labeled sheep reticulocytes as the experimental model, we show that during in vitro maturation, 125I-TFR of native size appears in exosomes before the soluble, truncated, exofacial domain of the receptor is detected in the medium. Because cleavage and release of the exofacial domain would likely leave the truncated cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains in the originating membrane (plasma membranes or exosomes), both fractions were probed with antibodies specifically generated against the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor. Only exosomes, not plasma membranes, show the presence of a approximately 17-Kd peptide recognized by the antibody to the cytoplasmic domain of the transferrin receptor. Thus, it is concluded that the truncated, soluble receptor originates from exosomes in sheep. A 17-Kd cytoplasmic domain of the TFR was also detected in exosomes from the reticulocytes of an anemic man, suggesting that the truncated receptor in man may also originate from exosomes. Using in vitro cultures of surface 125I-labeled sheep reticulocytes, it is concluded that exosome formation is the principal route for maturation-associated loss of the TFR. A similar conclusion was made earlier (Johnstone et al: J Cell Physiol 147:27, 1991) for the nucleoside transporter of maturing sheep reticulocytes.

The effect of lead on iron uptake from transferrin in human erythroleukemia (K562) cells.

The effect of lead on cellular iron metabolism has been investigated using human erythroleukemia (K562) cells. When the cells were cultured with 100 microM Pb2+ for 48 h, the rate of cellular iron uptake from transferrin decreased to 46% of that in untreated cells. Scatchard analysis of the binding data revealed that this reduction was the result of a decrease in the number of transferrin receptors rather than an alteration in ligand-receptor affinity. The results of immunoprecipitation of transferrin receptors on the cell surface also confirmed the decreased expression of transferrin receptors by lead-treated cells. The down-regulation of transferrin receptors by treatment with lead did not result from a decrease in the total amount of the receptor, as determined by immunoblotting. Moreover, the biosynthesis of the receptor was unaffected by lead treatment. Thus, the down-regulation of surface transferrin receptors in lead-treated cells might be due to a redistribution of receptors rather than an actual loss of receptors from the cell. Using kinetic analysis, it was shown that redistribution of the receptor did not result from the alteration in the rates of transferrin receptor recycling. A comparison of the amounts of transferrin receptor on the cell surface and in the cycling pool revealed that the sequestration of the receptor from normal flow through the cycle might cause down-regulation of the surface receptor.

Identification of the Alzheimer beta/A4 amyloid precursor protein in clathrin-coated vesicles purified from PC12 cells.

The Alzheimer beta/A4 amyloid precursor protein (APP) can be proteolytically processed by at least two separate pathways in PC12 cells: chloroquine-insensitive secretory cleavage and chloroquine-sensitive intracellular degradation, presumably in the endosomal/lysosomal system. To further investigate the possibility of APP processing in the endosomal/lysosomal system, we have examined whether APP is present in clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs), which mediate the transport of many proteins to the endosomal compartment. Using a procedure derived from established protocols for the purification of CCVs from mammalian organs, we obtained from PC12 cells highly purified CCVs that displayed the same morphological features as described for CCVs purified from other sources. The CCVs were enriched in full-length mature (fully post-translationally modified) forms of APP, as well as in the carboxyl-terminal APP fragment produced by the secretory cleavage pathway. As CCVs are known to be involved in only two intracellular pathways (trafficking from the plasma membrane to early endosomes, and from the trans-Golgi network to late endosomes/prelysosomes), these findings provide direct evidence that APP is transported to the endosomal/lysosomal system. Furthermore, the presence in CCVs of the carboxyl-terminal fragment resulting from APP secretory cleavage suggests that APP secretory processing occurs in a pre-CCV compartment.

Identification and isolation of the Leishmania transferrin receptor.

In a previous report, we have presented several lines of evidence, derived from widely different methodologies, suggesting that Leishmania has specific receptors for transferrin with a Kd similar to the mammalian transferrin receptor. This paper describes the identification, purification, and biochemical characterization of Leishmania transferrin receptor. The Leishmania transferrin receptor, detected on intact parasites by immunoperoxidase staining, was first identified by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by Western blot analysis, using 125I-transferrin, as a 70-kDa protein. It has been isolated initially from Leishmania infantum promastigotes using affinity chromatography on a transferrin-Sepharose column and, subsequently, from Leishmania major promastigotes. The use of polyclonal antisera to the purified 70-kDa Leishmania transferrin receptor and to the purified rat transferrin receptor showed that the two receptors are antigenically distinct. The 70-kDa Leishmania transferrin receptor was subsequently characterized as an integral membrane glycoprotein. The monomeric state of the Leishmania transferrin receptor was demonstrated by gel filtration of purified receptor complexed with 125I-transferrin. Thus, the Leishmania transferrin receptor, unlike the mammalian receptor, is not a disulfide-linked dimer but a single 70-kDa polypeptide.

Structure of the N-linked oligosaccharides of the human transferrin receptor.

Human transferrin receptor was isolated from placenta and from the hepatocarcinoma cell line Hep G2. Asparagine-linked oligosaccharides were released by treatment of tryptic glycopeptides with endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H or peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase F. Oligosaccharide alditols were fractionated by anion-exchange high-performance liquid chromatography and by high-pH anion-exchange chromatography. Glycans from placental transferrin receptor were further characterized, after desialylation, by methylation analysis and, in part, by liquid secondary-ion mass spectrometry. Sialylation of placental transferrin receptor was examined by lectin affinity blotting with Sambucus nigra agglutinin and Maackia amurensis agglutinin. In order to trace possible inter-individual differences in N-glycosylation of the receptor, two preparations of placental transferrin receptor purified from two donors were compared. The results demonstrate that human transferrin receptor from placenta predominantly carries diantennary and triantennary N-acetyllactosaminic glycans as well as hybrid-type species, the galactose residues of which being almost completely substituted with (alpha 2-3)-linked sialic acid residues. Distinct differences were noted in the glycosylation pattern of the receptor from different individuals. Transferrin receptor from donor A carried predominantly diantennary and triantennary complex-type glycans, in part fucosylated at the innermost N-acetylglucosamine residue, in addition to small amounts of bisected and of incomplete diantennary species. Placental transferrin receptor from donor B predominantly carried triantennary N-acetyllactosaminic glycans without fucose and hybrid-type oligosaccharides with four or five mannose residues. Distinct from placental transferrin receptor, the receptor from Hep G2 cells contained larger amounts of oligomannosidic glycans with six to nine mannose residues and tetrasialylated complex-type oligosaccharides apart from mono-, di- and trisialylated species.