Associating the Change in New COVID-19 Cases to GDP per Capita in 38 European Countries in the First Wave of the Pandemic.

COVID-19 has affected all countries globally. We explore associations between the change in new COVID-19 registered cases per million population and various macroeconomic and well-being indicators in 38 European countries over a 2-month period (1st April-31st May 2020). A statistically significant (p = 0.002) negative association was estimated between the change in new COVID-19 cases and GDP per capita, after controlling for key health determinants including public expenditure on health, life expectancy, smoking tobacco and sanitation. The country with the highest GDP per capita in Europe (i.e., Luxemburg) was found to experience the lowest change in new COVID-19 cases within the time period whilst the opposite was found for countries with lower GDP per capita (i.e., Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Romania). The outcomes of this study indicate that, in the first wave of the pandemic in Europe, a country's GDP per capita might be associated with a lower rate of new COVID-19 cases. The study concludes by suggesting that in European regions a country's economic performance should be a critical health priority for policy makers.

Características das empresas de saneamento associadas à fluoretação da água dos sistemas de abastecimento de municípios do Brasil, 2008 / Characteristics of sanitation companies associated to water fluoridation of the supply systems of Brazilian municipalities, 2008

RESUMO: Introdução: Avaliou-se o efeito ajustado das características das empresas de saneamento na provisão da fluoretação da água de abastecimento público nos municípios brasileiros. Métodos: Estudo ecológico transversal com base no Censo Demográfico 2010, Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico 2008 e Atlas de Desenvolvimento Humano 2010. As variáveis independentes foram as características das empresas e dos municípios e o desfecho foi a falta de provisão da fluoretação. Estimou-se a razão de prevalência por meio de regressão de Poisson com variância robusta. Resultados: Incluíram-se 5.565 municípios brasileiros. Na análise ajustada, o desfecho foi independente e positivamente associado com municípios das macrorregiões Norte, Nordeste, Centro-Oeste e Sudeste, que tinham taxas de cobertura de serviços de água e esgoto abaixo do valor mediano, menos de 10 mil habitantes e índice médio e baixo/muito baixo de desenvolvimento humano. Quanto ao efeito independente das características das empresas, tiveram maior probabilidade de não ofertar fluoretação todas as empresas classificadas como de administração indireta do poder público, ou sociedade de economia mista, ou economia mista de caráter público; as municipais e intermunicipais (razão de prevalência - RP = 1,21; intervalo de confiança de 95% - IC95% 1,19 - 1,23); e a prefeitura, quando única executora (RP = 1,22; IC95% 1,20 - 1,25). Conclusão: A falta de provisão da fluoretação da água foi maior quando o serviço era prestado preponderantemente por administrações municipais e empresas privadas, associadas ou não a entidades públicas, independentemente das características dos municípios.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: The adjusted effect of the characteristics of sanitation companies on the provision of fluoridation into public water supply in Brazilian municipalities was evaluated. Methods: Cross-sectional and ecological study based on the 2010 Demographic Census, 2008 National Survey on Basic Sanitation (PNSB), and 2010 Atlas of Human Development. The independent variables were the characteristics of utilities and municipalities, and the outcome was the lack of provision of fluoridation. Prevalence ratio was estimated with Poisson regression with robust variance. Results: 5,565 Brazilian municipalities were included. In the adjusted analysis, the outcome was independently and positively associated to municipalities in the North, Northeast, Central-West and Southeast macro-regions, with coverage rates for water and sewage services below the median value, with less than 10,000 inhabitants, medium and low/very low in human development. Regarding the independent effect of the utilities' characteristics, they were more likely not to provide fluoridation, all the companies that were not classified as indirect administration of the government or mixed-capital company or mixed-capital company of public character; municipal and intermunicipal (PR=1.21; 95%CI 1.19-1.23); and when the municipal government is the only provider (PR=1.22; 95%CI 1.20-1.25). Conclusion: The lack of provision of water fluoridation was greater when the service was mainly provided by municipal administrations and private companies associated or not to public entities, regardless of the characteristics of the municipalities.

Saneamento básico e saúde autoavaliada nas capitais brasileiras: uma análise multinível / Basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals: a multilevel analysis

RESUMO: Objetivo: Analisar a associação entre os determinantes contextuais referentes ao saneamento básico e a autoavaliação de saúde nas capitais brasileiras. Métodos: Analisaram-se 27.017 adultos (≥ 18 anos) residentes nas 27 capitais brasileiras em 2013, utilizando dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Ajustaram-se modelos multiníveis logísticos bayesianos para analisar a associação entre a autoavaliação de saúde e a cobertura dos serviços de saneamento básico (rede de esgoto, abastecimento de água e coleta de lixo), controlando a análise por fatores individuais (primeiro nível do modelo) e renda per capita da cidade de residência (segundo nível). Resultados: A maior cobertura de serviços de saneamento básico esteve consistentemente associada à melhor percepção da saúde, mesmo após o controle pelas características individuais e contextuais. Observou-se menor chance de autoavaliação ruim de saúde entre indivíduos que viviam em capitais com média (odds ratio - OR = 0,59; intervalo de confiança - IC95% = 0,57 - 0,61) e alta (OR = 0,61; IC95% = 0,57 - 0,66) cobertura da rede de coleta de esgoto; média (OR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,71 - 0,83) cobertura de serviço de abastecimento de água; e alta (OR = 0,78; IC95% = 0,69 - 0,89) proporção de coleta de lixo. Conclusão: A associação positiva entre melhores condições de saneamento básico e a autoavaliação da saúde, independentemente dos fatores individuais e das condições socioeconômicas do local de residência, confirma a necessidade de se considerar o saneamento básico na elaboração de políticas de saúde.

ABSTRACT: Objective: This study aimed to analyze the association between the contextual determinants related to basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals. Methods: The sample consisted of 27,017 adults (≥18 years) residing in the 27 Brazilian capitals in 2013, from the National Health Survey (PNS). The association between self-reported health and sanitation (sewage system, water supply and garbage collection) was analyzed using Bayesian multilevel models, controlling for individual factors (first level of the model) and area-level socioeconomic characteristics (second level). Results: We found a consistent association between better self-reported health and better sanitation levels, even after controlling for individual and contextual characteristics. At the contextual level, lower odds of poor self-reported health was observed among those living in areas with medium (OR = 0.59, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.61) or high (OR = 0.61, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.66) sewage system level; medium (OR = 0.77, 95%CI 0.71 - 0.83) coverage of water supply; and high (OR = 0.78, 95%CI 0.69 - 0.89) garbage collection level. Conclusion: The positive association between better sanitation conditions and health, independently of the individual factors and the socioeconomic characteristics of the place of residence, confirms the need to consider sanitation in the planning of health policies.

Saneamento básico e desigualdades de cor/raça em domicílios urbanos com a presença de crianças menores de 5 anos, com foco na população indígena / Basic sanitation and inequalities in color/race in urban households with under-five children, with a focus on the indigenous population / Saneamiento básico y desigualdades de color/raza en domicilios urbanos con presencia de niños menores de 5 años, centrándose en población indígena

Resumo: Objetivou-se analisar a presença dos serviços de saneamento básico em domicílios com crianças de até cinco anos de idade, localizados em áreas urbanas do Brasil, com foco nos indígenas. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com base na amostra do Censo Demográfico de 2010. Calcularam-se as frequências de domicílios com abastecimento de água (rede geral), esgotamento sanitário (rede geral ou fossa séptica) e coleta de lixo (diretamente ou por caçamba do serviço público de limpeza). Modelos de regressão logística múltipla (RLM) estimaram a associação entre cor/raça e presença dos serviços por meio das razões de chance (RC). Foram consideradas as áreas urbanas e regiões metropolitanas do país, estratificando os resultados por região. Utilizou-se nível de significância de 5%. As menores frequências foram encontradas para esgotamento sanitário e, em geral, para os indígenas. Nas análises de RLM foram 29 comparações (48,3%) em que os domicílios com crianças indígenas, quando comparados às outras categorias de cor/raça, encontram-se em desvantagem, em especial no Sul, onde todas as comparações foram negativas para os indígenas. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para as regiões metropolitanas. Nesse sentido, os resultados coligidos por este trabalho sugerem a possível existência de iniquidades relacionadas à presença dos serviços de saneamento básico e cor/raça dos indivíduos, em que os indígenas, em geral, ocupam posição de desvantagem, particularmente no Sul do país. Diante da relação entre saneamento e saúde já estabelecida na literatura, esses resultados podem explicar, em parte, os baixos níveis de saúde apresentados por crianças indígenas no Brasil.

Abstract: This study aimed to analyze the presence of basic sanitation services in households with children under five years of age located in urban areas of Brazil, with a focus on indigenous children. This cross-sectional study was based on data from the 2010 Population Census. We calculated the rates of households with running water (public system), sewage disposal (public system or septic tanks), and garbage collection (directly or via public dumpsters). Multiple logistic regression (MLR) models were used to estimate associations between color/race and presence of sanitation services, based on odds ratios (OR). The study considered Brazil's urban metropolitan areas and stratified the results by major geographic region. Significance was set at 5%. The lowest frequencies were for sewage disposal, and all the rates were lower for indigenous people. MLR analyses included 29 comparisons (48.3%) in which households with indigenous children (compared to other color/race categories) were at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil, where all comparisons were negative for indigenous households. Similar results appeared in metropolitan areas. The results thus suggest inequalities basic sanitation services based on color/race, where indigenous people are generally at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil. Given the relationship between sanitation and health, as already demonstrated in the literature, these results can partly explain the low health levels in indigenous children in Brazil.

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la presencia de servicios de saneamiento básico en domicilios con niños de hasta cinco años de edad, localizados en áreas urbanas de Brasil, enfocándose en los de origen indígena. Se trata de un estudio transversal, basado en la muestra del Censo Demográfico de 2010. Se calcularon las frecuencias de domicilios con abastecimiento de agua (red general), alcantarillado (red general o fosa séptica) y recogida de basura (directamente o mediante camiones de basura del servicio público de limpieza). Los modelos de regresión logística múltiple (RLM) estimaron la asociación entre color/raza, y la presencia de los servicios se realizó a través de las razones de oportunidad (RC). Se consideraron áreas urbanas y regiones metropolitanas del país, estratificando los resultados por región. Se utilizó un nivel de significancia del 5%. Las frecuencias menores se encontraron en el alcantarillado y, en general, respecto a los indígenas. En los análisis de RLM se realizaron 29 comparaciones (48,3%) en las que los domicilios con niños indígenas, cuando se comparan con otras categorías de color/raza, se encuentran en desventaja, en especial en el Sur, donde todas las comparaciones fueron negativas en relación con los indígenas. Resultados semejantes se encontraron respecto a las regiones metropolitanas. En ese sentido, los resultados recopilados por este estudio sugieren la posible existencia de inequidades relacionadas con la presencia de los servicios de saneamiento básico y color/raza de los individuos, donde los indígenas, en general, ocupan una posición de desventaja, particularmente en el Sur del país. Ante la relación entre saneamiento y salud, ya establecidos en la literatura, estos resultados pueden explicar, en parte, los bajos niveles de salud presentados por niños indígenas en Brasil.

Urban sanitation coverage and environmental fecal contamination: Links between the household and public environments of Accra, Ghana.

Exposure to fecal contamination in public areas, especially in dense, urban environments, may significantly contribute to enteric infection risk. This study examined associations between sanitation and fecal contamination in public environments in four low-income neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana. Soil (n = 72) and open drain (n = 90) samples were tested for E. coli, adenovirus, and norovirus. Sanitation facilities in surveyed households (n = 793) were categorized by onsite fecal sludge containment ("contained" vs. "uncontained") using previous Joint Monitoring Program infrastructure guidelines. Most sanitation facilities were shared by multiple households. Associations between spatial clustering of household sanitation coverage and fecal contamination were examined, controlling for neighborhood and population density (measured as enumeration areas in the 2010 census and spatially matched to sample locations). E. coli concentrations in drains within 50m of clusters of contained household sanitation were more than 3 log-units lower than those outside of clusters. Further, although results were not always statistically significant, E. coli concentrations in drains showed consistent trends with household sanitation coverage clusters: concentrations were lower in or near clusters of high coverage of household sanitation facilities-especially contained facilities-and vice versa. Virus detection in drains and E. coli concentrations in soil were not significantly associated with clustering of any type of household sanitation and did not exhibit consistent trends. Population density alone was not significantly associated with any of the fecal contamination outcomes by itself and was a significant, yet inconsistent, effect modifier of the association between sanitation clusters and E. coli concentrations. These findings suggest clustering of contained household sanitation, even when shared, may be associated with lower levels of fecal contamination within drains in the immediate public domain. Further research is needed to better quantify these relationships and examine impacts on health.

Associação entre condições socioeconômicas, sanitárias e de atenção básica e a morbidade hospitalar por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil / Association between socioeconomic, health, and primary care conditions and hospital morbidity due to waterborne diseases in Brazil / Asociación entre condiciones socioeconómicas, sanitarias y de atención básica y la morbilidad hospitalaria por enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Brasil

Resumo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a associação entre condições socioeconômicas, de saneamento básico e de cobertura por equipes de saúde da família (EqSF) sobre as internações por doenças de veiculação hídrica no Brasil. A análise das condições socioeconômicas e de saneamento se deu por meio de um estudo ecológico com dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) e do Departamento de Informática do SUS (DATASUS) - observações dos Estados e Distrito Federal - para o ano de 2013. A relação das EqSF com as internações foi avaliada por meio da estimação de regressão simples, com dados coletados no DATASUS e Departamento de Atenção Básica do Ministério da Saúde, para o período de 1998 a 2014. A existência de coleta de esgoto por rede geral, a baixa escolaridade e a cobertura por EqSF influenciaram, com significância estatística (p < 0,05), as internações avaliadas. Pela análise do risco atribuível, estimou-se que no Brasil, tomando-se como base os dados de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) das internações por doenças selecionadas poderiam ter sido evitadas, caso as condições de esgotamento sanitário fossem adequadas. Seriam ainda evitados os gastos com o tratamento delas, calculado em R$ 20.372.559,90 e os dias perdidos com as internações, 172.722. Sugere-se que a adoção integrada de políticas de saneamento, educação e assistência à saúde que considerem as desigualdades regionais contribuirá para a melhoria das condições de saúde da população.

Abstract: The current study aimed to assess the association between socioeconomic conditions, basic sanitation, and coverage by family health teams and hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. The analysis of socioeconomic conditions and sanitation was based on an ecological study with data from the Brazilian National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the Brazilian Health Informatics Departament (DATASUS) database (observations for the States and Federal District) for the year 2013. Associations between family health teams and hospitalization were assessed by simple regressions, with data from DATASUS and the Department of Primary Care of Ministry of Health from 1998 to 2014. Connection to the public sewage system, low schooling, and family health team coverage were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with hospitalizations for waterborne diseases. Based on attributable risk analysis, for Brazil as a whole in 2013, 57,574 (16.3%) of hospital admissions for waterborne diseases could have been avoided by adequate sewage disposal, which would also have avoided BRL 20,372,559.90 in treatment costs and 172,722 days lost to hospitalization. The results emphasize the importance of integrated sanitation policies, education, and health care that consider regional inequalities, thereby contributing to improvement of the population's health conditions.

Resumen: El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar la asociación entre condiciones socioeconómicas, de saneamiento básico y de cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia sobre los internamientos por enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Brasil. El análisis de las condiciones socioeconómicas y de saneamiento se realizó mediante un estudio ecológico, con datos de la Encuesta Nacional por Muestra de Domicilios (PNAD) y del Sistema de Información del Sistema Único de Salud (DATASUS) -observaciones de los Estados y Districto Federal- durante el año 2013. La relación de los equipos de salud de la familia con los internamientos se evaluó gracias a la estimación de regresión simple, con los datos recogidos en el DATASUS y el Departamento de Atención Básica del Ministerio de la Salud, para el período de 1998 a 2014. La existencia de desagües para los residuos, mediante una red general de alcantarillado, la baja escolaridad y la cobertura por equipos de salud de la familia influenciaron con significancia estadística (p < 0,05) los internamientos evaluados. Por el análisis del riesgo atribuible, se estimó que en Brasil, tomando como base los datos de 2013, 57.574 (16,3%) de los internamientos por enfermedades seleccionadas podrían haber sido evitados, si las condiciones del alcantarillado fueran las adecuadas. Se evitarían incluso los gastos con su tratamiento, calculado en BRL 20.372.559,90, y los días perdidos con los internamientos en 172.722. Se sugiere que la adopción integrada de políticas de saneamiento, educación y asistencia a la salud, que consideren las desigualdades regionales, contribuiría a la mejoría de las condiciones de salud de la población.

Estado nutricional e condições ambientais e de saúde de crianças Pataxó, Minas Gerais, Brasil / Nutritional status and environmental and health conditions of Pataxó indigenous children, Minas Gerais State, Brazil / Estado nutricional y condiciones ambientales y de salud de niños Pataxó, Minas Gerais, Brasil

Resumo: Descrever o estado nutricional e as condições ambientais e de saúde das crianças Pataxó de cinco aldeias de Minas Gerais, Brasil. O estado nutricional foi classificado com base no peso e estatura/comprimento, tendo como referência o padrão de crescimento da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Questionários baseados no I Inquérito Nacional de Saúde e Nutrição dos Povos Indígenas foram utilizados para a avaliação das condições ambientais dos domicílios e de saúde dos menores de cinco anos. Dos 70 menores de dez anos avaliados (93,3%), 34 tinham menos de cinco anos. Não se observaram déficits nutricionais e sobrepeso foi registrado para 11,4% das crianças. A maioria das crianças (74,3%) vivia em domicílios com energia elétrica, 95% em domicílios com latrina/sanitário e 52,9% lançavam dejetos em fossa séptica. A realização de seis ou mais consultas de pré-natal foi reportada por 82,4% das mães dos menores de cinco anos, e 91,2% iniciaram o pré-natal no primeiro trimestre de gestação. Dentre as causas de internações hospitalares nos últimos 12 meses (23,5%), somente uma foi devido à diarreia e nenhuma por causa de infecções respiratórias. Foram verificadas coberturas universais para a maioria das vacinas avaliadas. A inexistência de déficits nutricionais entre as crianças Pataxó pode estar associada às melhores condições de habitação, saneamento e cobertura das ações básicas de saúde infantil quando comparadas às condições verificadas no I Inquérito Nacional de Saúde e Nutrição dos Povos Indígenas e de estudos pontuais. Este trabalho pretende subsidiar discussões e ações que visem a melhorias do estado nutricional infantil dos indígenas no Brasil.

Abstract: To describe the nutritional status and the environmental and health conditions of the Pataxó children from five villages of Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Among the under 10 years old, weight and height/length were classified according to the growth references of World Health Organization. Questionnaires evaluating environmental conditions of the households and health conditions of under 5 years old were based in the First National Survey of Indigenous People's Health and Nutrition. Among the 70 children evaluated (93.3%), 34 were under 5 years old. Nutritional deficits were not observed and overweight was registered for 11.4% of the children. Most of the children (74.3%) lived in households with electric energy, 95% in households with toilets and 52.9% in households that threw waste in septic tanks. Six or more antenatal appointments were reported by 82.4% of the mothers of the under five years old and 91.2% started the antenatal appointments within the first trimester of pregnancy. Among the causes of hospitalizations in the previous 12 months (23.5%), only one was due to diarrhea and none to respiratory infection. Universal coverage was observed for the majority of the vaccines. The absence of nutritional deficits among the Pataxó children may be associated to better housing and sanitation conditions and coverage of basic childhood health actions when compared to the conditions reported by the First National Survey of Indigenous People's Health and Nutrition and related studies with other specific indigenous peoples. The current study aims to back discussions and measures to improve the nutritional status of indigenous children in Brazil.

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir el estado nutricional, así como las condiciones ambientales y de salud de niños Pataxó, procedentes de cinco aldeas de Minas Gerais, Brasil. El estado nutricional se clasificó en base al peso y estatura/longitud, teniendo como referencia el patrón de crecimiento de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Se utilizaron cuestionarios basados en la I Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de los Pueblos Indígenas para la evaluación de las condiciones ambientales de los domicilios y de salud de los menores de cinco años. De los 70 menores de 10 años evaluados (93,3%), 34 tenían menos de cinco años. No se observaron déficits nutricionales y se registro sobrepeso en 11,4% de los niños. La mayoría de los niños (74,3%) vivía en domicilios con energía eléctrica, 95% en domicilios con letrina/retrete y un 52,9% efectuaba deposiciones en fosa séptica. La realización de seis o más consultas de carácter prenatal fueron informadas por parte de un 82,4% de las madres de los menores de cinco años, y un 91,2% comenzaron las consultas prenatales durante el primer trimestre de gestación. Entre las causas de internamientos hospitalarios en los últimos 12 meses (23,5%), solamente una se debió a diarrea y ninguna a causa de infecciones respiratorias. Se verificaron coberturas universales para la mayoría de las vacunas evaluadas. La inexistencia de déficits nutricionales entre los niños Pataxó puede estar asociada a las mejores condiciones de vivienda, saneamiento y cobertura de las acciones básicas respecto a salud infantil, cuando se comparan con las condiciones verificadas en la I Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de los Pueblos Indígenas y de otros estudios puntuales. Este trabajo pretende servir de apoyo para futuras discusiones y acciones que tengan por objetivo las mejoras en el estado nutricional infantil de los indígenas en Brasil.

Water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure and quality in rural healthcare facilities in Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: WHO and UNICEF have proposed an action plan to achieve universal water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) coverage in healthcare facilities (HCFs) by 2030. The WASH targets and indicators for HCFs include: an improved water source on the premises accessible to all users, basic sanitation facilities, a hand washing facility with soap and water at all sanitation facilities and patient care areas. To establish viable targets for WASH in HCFs, investigation beyond 'access' is needed to address the state of WASH infrastructure and service provision. Patient and caregiver use of WASH services is largely unaddressed in previous studies despite being critical for infection control. METHODS: The state of WASH services used by staff, patients and caregivers was assessed in 17 rural HCFs in Rwanda. Site selection was non-random and predicated upon piped water and power supply. Direct observation and semi-structured interviews assessed drinking water treatment, presence and condition of sanitation facilities, provision of soap and water, and WASH-related maintenance and record keeping. Samples were collected from water sources and treated drinking water containers and analyzed for total coliforms, E. coli, and chlorine residual. RESULTS: Drinking water treatment was reported at 15 of 17 sites. Three of 18 drinking water samples collected met the WHO guideline for free chlorine residual of >0.2 mg/l, 6 of 16 drinking water samples analyzed for total coliforms met the WHO guideline of <1 coliform/100 mL and 15 of 16 drinking water samples analyzed for E. coli met the WHO guideline of <1 E. coli/100 mL. HCF staff reported treating up to 20 L of drinking water per day. At all sites, 60% of water access points (160 of 267) were observed to be functional, 32% of hand washing locations (46 of 142) had water and soap and 44% of sanitary facilities (48 of 109) were in hygienic condition and accessible to patients. Regular maintenance of WASH infrastructure consisted of cleaning; no HCF had on-site capacity for performing repairs. Quarterly evaluations of HCFs for Rwanda's Performance Based Financing system included WASH indicators. CONCLUSIONS: All HCFs met national policies for water access, but WHO guidelines for environmental standards including water quality were not fully satisfied. Access to WASH services at the HCFs differed between staff and patients and caregivers.

Severe functional difficulties and disabilities in children and adolescents and the Sustainable Development Goals / Dificultades funcionales severas y discapacidades en niños y adolescentes frente a los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible

Abstract: Objective: To report prevalence of severe child functional difficulties and disability (CFD) in a nationally representative sample of 2 to 17 year-old children in Mexico and describe the inequities faced by children with CFD in relation to a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)-related outcomes. Materials and methods: Using data from the National Survey of Children and Women (ENIM 2015) we estimate prevalence with 95% confidence intervals for the selected indicators. We use chi-square test and confidence intervals inspection to report significant differences between children with and without CFD. Results: 8% of children present at least one CFD. CFD is associated with higher prevalence of underweight and child labor and lower prevalence of adequate early child development. Conclusion. Children with CFD present worst outcomes and require targeted efforts to ensure they meet health and wellbeing targets in the frame of the SDGs.

Resumen: Objetivo: Reportar la prevalencia de problemas severos de funcionamiento y discapacidad (CFD) en una muestra representativa de niños y niñas de 2 a 17 años en México y describir las inequidades enfrentadas por los niños y niñas con CFD respecto a un conjunto de indicadores relacionados con los objetivos de desarrollo sustentable (ODS). Material y métodos: A partir de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Niñas, Niños y Mujeres en México (ENIM 2015), se estiman prevalencias e intervalos de confianza al 95% para indicadores seleccionados. Se usa prueba de ji cuadrada e intervalos de confianza para reportar diferencias significativas entre niños/as con y sin CFD. Resultados: 8% de los niños presentan al menos un CFD. Los CFD se asocian con mayor prevalencia de bajo-peso y trabajo infantil, y con menor prevalencia de desarrollo infantil temprano adecuado. Conclusión: Los niños con CFD presentan resultados desventajosos, y requieren esfuerzos enfocados que garanticen el alcance de las metas de salud y bienestar en el contexto de los ODS.

Condições de saneamento e desigualdades de cor/raça no Brasil urbano: uma análise com foco na população indígena com base no Censo Demográfico de 2010 / Sanitation and racial inequality conditions in urban Brazil: an analysis focused on the indigenous population based on the 2010 Population Census

RESUMO: Objetivo: Os objetivos deste estudo foram analisar e descrever a presença da infraestrutura de saneamento básico nas áreas urbanas do Brasil, contrastando os perfis dos domicílios indígenas com os de não indígenas. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo transversal com base nos microdados do Censo 2010. As análises foram baseadas em estatísticas descritivas (prevalências) e na construção de modelos de regressão logística múltipla (ajustados por covariáveis socioeconômicas e demográficas). Estimaram-se as razões de chance para a associação entre as variáveis explicativas (covariáveis) e de desfecho (abastecimento de água, esgotamento sanitário, coleta de lixo e saneamento adequado). O nível de significância estatística estabelecido foi de 5%. Resultados: Entre os serviços analisados, o esgotamento sanitário mostrou-se o mais precário. Em relação à cor ou raça, os domicílios com responsáveis indígenas apresentaram as menores frequências de presença de infraestrutura sanitária no Brasil Urbano. Os resultados das regressões ajustadas mostraram que, em geral, os domicílios indígenas se encontram em desvantagem quando comparados aos de outras categorias de cor ou raça, especialmente quanto à presença do serviço de coleta de lixo. Essas desigualdades foram de maior magnitude nas regiões Sul e Centro-Oeste. Conclusão: As análises deste estudo não somente confirmam o perfil de precárias condições de infraestrutura de saneamento básico dos domicílios indígenas em área urbana, como também evidenciam a persistência de iniquidades associadas à cor ou raça no país.

ABSTRACT: Objective: The aims of this study were to analyze and describe the presence and infrastructure of basic sanitation in the urban areas of Brazil, contrasting indigenous with non-indigenous households. Methods: A cross-sectional study based on microdata from the 2010 Census was conducted. The analyses were based on descriptive statistics (prevalence) and the construction of multiple logistic regression models (adjusted by socioeconomic and demographic covariates). The odds ratios were estimated for the association between the explanatory variables (covariates) and the outcome variables (water supply, sewage, garbage collection, and adequate sanitation). The statistical significance level established was 5%. Results: Among the analyzed services, sewage proved to be the most precarious. Regarding race or color, indigenous households presented the lowest rate of sanitary infrastructure in Urban Brazil. The adjusted regression showed that, in general, indigenous households were at a disadvantage when compared to other categories of race or color, especially in terms of the presence of garbage collection services. These inequalities were much more pronounced in the South and Southeastern regions. Conclusion: The analyses of this study not only confirm the profile of poor conditions and infrastructure of the basic sanitation of indigenous households in urban areas, but also demonstrate the persistence of inequalities associated with race or color in the country.

Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review.

AIM: Advances in genetics and immunology have contributed to the current understanding of the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). METHODS: The current opinion on the pathogenesis of IBD suggests that genetically susceptible individuals develop intolerance to dysregulated gut microflora (dysbiosis) and chronic inflammation develops as a result of environmental insults. Environmental exposures are innumerable with varying effects during the life course of individuals with IBD. Studying the relationship between environmental factors and IBD may provide the missing link to increasing our understanding of the etiology and increased incidence of IBD in recent years with implications for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Environmental factors are heterogeneous and genetic predisposition, immune dysregulation, or dysbiosis do not lead to the development of IBD in isolation. RESULTS: Current challenges in the study of environmental factors and IBD are how to effectively translate promising results from experimental studies to humans in order to develop models that incorporate the complex interactions between the environment, genetics, immunology, and gut microbiota, and limited high quality interventional studies assessing the effect of modifying environmental factors on the natural history and patient outcomes in IBD. CONCLUSION: This article critically reviews the current evidence on environmental risk factors for IBD and proposes directions for future research.

Leprosy incidence, characterization of cases and correlation with household and cases variables of the Brazilian states in 2010

Abstract BACKGROUND: Leprosy is millenary disease and still persists in several countries. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the incidence of leprosy in the Brazilian states and for the country in the year 2010; to describe the cases reported according to the studied variables; to verify the correlation between the overall incidence and the studied variables. METHODS: Ecological descriptive study, with population data from the 27 states, 2010. Information about reported cases were collected: gender, race, percentage of patients younger than 15 years old and living conditions. The analysis was performed using percentages, means, incidence rates and the Spearman correlation test. RESULTS: The states of Mato Grosso and Tocantins recorded the highest incidence rates; Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, the lowest; there was a higher incidence of leprosy among men; the incidence of leprosy increases proportionally with the nonwhites among the inhabitants; patients younger than 15 years; the average number of residents per household; and a decrease in coverage of water supply and presence of bathrooms. CONCLUSION: The incidence of leprosy is related to factors as gender, race and house conditions (p<0,05 for all).

Distribuição espaço-temporal da leptospirose e fatores de risco em Belém, Pará, Brasil / Leptospirosis space-time distribution and risk factors in Belém, Pará, Brazil

Resumo A ocorrência da leptospirose tem desafiado a epidemiologia na utilização de diferentes tecnologias de análises em escalas geográficas locais. Este estudo transversal e descritivo objetivou identificar correlações espaciais de fatores de risco socioambientais com a leptospirose em Belém, Pará, entre 2007 e 2013. Os dados epidemiológicos foram obtidos no Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação, da Secretaria do Estado de Saúde Pública e os ambientais, demográficos e territoriais no Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Homens, 20 a 39 anos, ocupação indeterminada, etnia parda, foram os mais acometidos. O diagnóstico laboratorial (82%) e o atendimento hospitalar (67,22%) demonstraram acesso satisfatório ao Sistema de Saúde. A Krigagem numérica mostrou a maior concentração da doença nos bairros Guamá e Jurunas, em áreas de menores cotas altimétricas, próximas a canais. A técnica de Buffer apontou maior concentração da doença em áreas de ausência de coleta de resíduos sólidos domiciliares (26%), esgoto (22%), água encanada (38%), e com arruamento não pavimentado (20%) e alagamento de rua (65%). A técnica de Moran demonstrou uma correlação espacial direta entre estas variáveis (p = 0,01543). A tendência geral expressou o decréscimo da doença.

Abstract The occurrence of leptospirosis has defied epidemiology even when using different analysis technologies at local geographical levels. This cross-sectional and descriptive study sought to identify spatial correlations between social and environmental risk factors and leptospirosis in Belém in the State of Pará from 2007 to 2013. Epidemiological data were obtained from the Information System for Notifiable Diseases of the Pará State Department of Public Health and the environmental, demographic and cartographical data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Men aged 20 to 39 of unknown profession and mixed ethnicity were the most affected. Laboratory diagnosis (82%) and hospital care (67.22%) confirmed satisfactory access to the Unified Health System. Numerical Kriging indicated the highest concentrations of the disease in the Guamá and Jurunas neighborhoods in lower lying areas near canals. The Buffer technique showed higher concentrations of the disease in areas with no domestic solid garbage collection service (26%), sewage (22%), piped water (38%), with unpaved roads (20%) and street flooding (65%). The Moran technique revealed a direct spatial correlation between these variables (p = 0.01543). The general trend showed the decrease of the disease.

Basic sanitation, socioeconomic conditions, and degree of risk for the presence and maintenance of malaria in a low-transmission area in the Brazilian Amazon

ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION:This study aimed to evaluate basic sanitation and socioeconomic indicators, reported cases of malaria, and risk of contracting malaria in the Ananindeua municipality, State of Pará.METHODS:Data on basic sanitation and socioeconomic dimensions were taken from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics [ Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE)] 2010 census. Epidemiological malaria information was taken from the Epidemiological Malaria Surveillance Information System [ Sistema de Informação de Vigilância Epidemiológica de Malária (SIVEP/Malaria)], between 2003 and 2013 of the Ministry of Health and from the SIVEP/Malaria forms of the municipality's Endemic Diseases Unit for 2,013 cases.RESULTS:Our data do not confirm the correlation among indicators of basic sanitation, socioeconomic conditions, and water supply with malaria cases. Of the 1,557 cases evaluated, most were caused by Plasmodium vivax , with rare cases of Plasmodium falciparum and mixed infections. There were 756 notifications in 2003. The number of reported cases was sharply reduced between 2006 and 2012, but a 142-case outbreak occurred in 2013. Ananindeua municipality's Annual Parasite Index indicated low risk in 2003 and no risk in other years, and the 2,013 cases were predominantly male individuals aged ≥40 years.CONCLUSIONS:Our data confirm the non-endemicity of malaria in the Ananindeua municipality, as the Annual Parasite Indices described for the years 2004-2013 classify it as a risk-free area. However, the 2013 outbreak indicates the need to strengthen prevention, surveillance, and control activities to reduce the risk of new outbreaks and consequent economic and social impacts on the population.

A survey of intestinal parasites including associated risk factors in humans in Panama.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal parasitic infections are among the most common infections worldwide, leading to illness with serious and long lasting implications in children and immunocompromised people. Transmission of intestinal parasites is more frequent in tropical and sub-tropical areas where sanitation is poor and socioeconomic conditions are deficient. Panama is a country where climate and social conditions could be reflected in a high number of people infected with intestinal parasites. The presence, prevalence, and distribution of intestinal parasites in this country have been approached to date only in very restricted areas and population groups, but the impact of intestinal parasite infections at the national level is unknown. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey between 2008 and 2010 to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites across Panama. Overall, 14 municipalities in seven provinces of Panama were surveyed. The presence of eggs, cysts, and larvae was assessed by microscopy in 1123 human fecal samples using a concentration technique. A questionnaire to identify risk factors associated with the frequency of intestinal parasites in the study population was also prepared and performed. Overall, 47.4% of human samples presented parasites. Variables including community type, age group, occupation, co-presence of commensals and socioeconomic factors (use of shoes and type of sanitation) were significantly associated with intestinal parasites (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The preliminary data obtained in the current study, showing a high prevalence of fecal-oral transmitted parasites in Panama, place intestinal parasitism as a major health problem in this country. Specific interventions should be planned for the indigenous population, the group most afflicted by intestinal parasites.

Prevalence and risk factors related to intestinal parasites among children in Department of Rio San Juan, Nicaragua.

BACKGROUND: The present study was carried out to assess the prevalence of intestinal parasite infections among children in Department of Rio San Juan (Nicaragua), to explore the extent of polyparasitism, and to identify the risk factors that might favour transmission of these parasites. METHODS: A coprological study of single stool specimen, collected at random from 382 children (167 boys and 215 girls) aged 2-15 years from two municipalities, and a questionnaire, concerning demographic and epidemiological data on sanitary and behavioural habits, was filled in to identify risk factors. RESULTS: About 93% of the children presented infection. Blastocystis hominis, the most frequently protozoa, and Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides and hookworm, the most prevalent helminths. Polyparasitism (85.4%[326/382]), with the highest percentages detected in females (p=0.001), in the 6-11 year age group (p<0.001) and having a rural background (p<0.001). A firm relationship between any parasite and age (OR=1.2, p=0.036) and rural background (OR=0.3, p=0.027) was detected. Living in rural areas and drinking river water were also positively associated with each of the STH species detected, and walking barefoot was also associated with hookworm infection. CONCLUSIONS: Government efforts should be focused on controlling the risk factors associated with these enteroparasites, with health education programmes in rural areas of Nicaragua.

Distribución espacial de las parasitosis intestinales en la ciudad de La Plata, Argentina

El análisis de las parasitosis a diferentes escalas (regional, local) se facilita por el Geographic Information System (GIS), que permite identificar áreas con distinto grado de vulnerabilidad. El objetivo del trabajo fue analizar la distribución espacial de las parasitosis intestinales en el partido de La Plata, estableciendo su relación con las condiciones socio-ambientales para identificar áreas con diferente riesgo epidemiológico. Se completó una encuesta epidemiológica y se tomaron muestras seriadas de materia fecal, analizadas por la técnica de Ritchie. Se calcularon niveles de precariedad y vulnerabilidad (Iv), y se compararon con los resultados parasitológicos. Se analizaron parasitológica y ambientalmente 653 personas, de las cuales 585 (89.6%) eran niños y 68 (10.4%) adultos. El análisis indicó que los más vulnerables (Iv = 3-4) estaban en el sector con menor acceso a servicios de infraestructura urbana. El índice se encontró fuertemente asociado a la prevalencia total de parasitosis intestinales y a las 4 especies patógenas asociadas a la contaminación fecal del ambiente: Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides, Hymenolepis nana y Giardia lamblia (p < 0.01). Enterobius vermicularis, parásito no vinculado a la condición sanitaria de sus hospedadores, no se asoció al Iv. Hubo asociación estadística entre precariedad y parasitosis y se halló que a mayor Iv mayor frecuencia de parasitosis (p < 0.01). El uso de GIS permitió zonificar las variables socioambientales en un gradiente creciente de condiciones desfavorables y su relación con la presencia de especies patógenas. La continuidad de estos estudios en diferentes regiones de Argentina contribuye a la determinación de áreas en riesgo sanitario.

Parasitosis analysis at regional levels is simplified by the use of the Geographic Information System (GIS), which enables the identification of areas with different degrees of vulnerability. We analyzed the spatial distribution of intestinal parasites in La Plata district and their relationship with socio-environmental conditions in order to identify areas with different degrees of epidemiological risk. An epidemiological survey was completed; stool samples were collected and analyzed by Ritchie's method. Levels of precariousness and vulnerability (Iv rate) were calculated and compared to the parasitological results. Parasitological and environmental analysis were carried out on a total of 653 individuals, of whom 585 (89.6%) were children and 68 (10.4%) adults. The analysis indicated that the most vulnerable (Iv = 3-4) were those located in areas with less access to urban infrastructure services. The Iv was strongly associated with the overall prevalence of intestinal parasitosis and the 4 pathogenic species related to the fecal contamination of the environment: Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides, Hymenolepis nana and Giardia lamblia (p < 0.01). On the other hand, Enterobius vermicularis, a parasite not related to the sanitary condition of its host, was not associated with the Iv. Statistical association between poverty and parasitosis was noted; the greater the Iv, higher the incidence of parasites (p < 0.01). GIS allowed zoning socio-environmental variables in an increasing gradient of unfavorable conditions and their relationship to the presence of pathogenic species. The continuity of these studies in different regions of Argentina contributes to the determination of health risk areas.

[Environmental virology and sanitation in Brazil: a narrative review]. / Virologia ambiental e saneamento no Brasil: uma revisão narrativa.

Sanitation services play a critical role in controlling transmission of numerous waterborne pathogens, especially viruses that cause acute gastroenteritis and hepatitis. The viral agents with the greatest public health impact are hepatitis A virus, rotaviruses and noroviruses, adenoviruses, and enteroviruses, contaminating many Brazilian aquatic ecosystems. Heavy circulation of viruses in the environment has been related to inadequate local sanitary conditions, including incomplete coverage of services or inefficacy of conventional technologies in eliminating or reducing the viral load in water or sewage. This study reviews the relations between virology, health, and sanitation, emphasizing the epidemiology of waterborne viral infections and their public health impact.