Trypanosoma and Leishmania have clonal population structures of epidemiological significance

ABSTRACT

This paper presents three results concerning the population structure of Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease (1) The mode of propagation of T. cruzi in nature is clonal; sexual reproduction is either totally absent or so rare that it leaves no traces in the population structure of the parasite. (2) The genetic diversity of the clonal lineages is large extant T. cruzi represent lineages of descent that have evolved independently for long time spans (up to 40 million years). (3) Some genetically identical clonal lineages (®clonets®) are geographically widespread (®ubiquitous®). However, most clonets are endemic, restricted in geographic distribution. These results have each in turn consequences of epidemiological significance: (1) In a sexually-reproducing organism the individual genotype is ephemeral; the entity that persists and evolves is the species (®gene pool®), and a few individuals contain most of the genetic variability of the species. In a clonally-propagating organism, the entity that persists and evolves is the clonal lineage; the genetic diversity of the species can only be captured by extensive sampling of distinct lineages. (2) The extensive genetic divergence among clonal lineages implies proportionally diverse biological characteristics, which are likely to include pathological effects, host propensity, vulnerability to drugs and vaccines, and other medically significant attributes. The extant T. cruzi lineages diverged much before human origins; hence, specific adaptation to human hosts, to whichever extent it exists, has evolved independently in separate lineages, and may not have evolved at all in some T. cruzi. (3) Epidemiological surveys and medical characterization, including search for specific vaccines and drugs, should not proceed randomly; rather, preliminary surveys must identify those clonets that are ubiquitous and target them for investigation. Review of published literature shows that Leishmania (and other parasitic protozoa) also has a clonal population structure. We advance a taxonomic and nomenclatural proposal that is appropriate for clonal organisms, yet simple