Determinants of Informal Care, Burden, and Risk of Burnout in Caregivers of Stroke Survivors: The CONOCES Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The aim of this article was to analyze the likelihood of receiving informal care after a stroke and to study the burden and risk of burnout of primary caregivers in Spain. METHODS: The CONOCES study is an epidemiological, observational, prospective, multicenter study of patients diagnosed with stroke and admitted to a Stroke Unit in the Spanish healthcare system. At 3 and 12 months post-event, we estimated the time spent caring for the patient and the burden borne by primary caregivers. Several multivariate models were applied to estimate the likelihood of receiving informal caregiving, the burden, and the likelihood of caregivers being at a high risk of burnout. RESULTS: Eighty percent of those still alive at 3 and 12 months poststroke were receiving informal care. More than 40% of those receiving care needed a secondary caregiver at 3 months poststroke. The likelihood of receiving informal care was associated with stroke severity and the individual's health-related quality of life. When informal care was provided, both the burden borne by caregivers and the likelihood of caregivers being at a high risk of burnout was associated with (1) caregiving hours; (2) the patient's health-related quality of life; (3) the severity of the stroke measured at discharge; (4) the patient having atrial fibrillation; and (5) the degree of dependence. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals the heavy burden borne by the caregivers of stroke survivors. Our analysis also identifies explanatory and predictive variables for the likelihood of receiving informal care, caregiver burden, and high risk of burnout.

Economic impact of patients admitted to stroke units in Spain.

OBJECTIVES: Stroke is a major social and health problem. However, since the recent incorporation of new advances in its management, little is known about the cost of stroke. The aim of this study is to find out the real cost of stroke in Spain. METHODS: This is an epidemiological, observational, prospective, multicenter study of patients diagnosed with stroke and admitted to a stroke unit. Patients were recruited from 16 hospitals throughout Spain and followed up for 1 year. Sociodemographic, clinical, and economic data were collected. Costs (€ 2012) were estimated from the social perspective and were divided into direct healthcare (inpatient, outpatient, and medication), direct non-healthcare (mainly formal and informal care) and labor productivity losses. RESULTS: A total of 321 patients were included. Mean age was 72.1 years and 176 patients (54.8 %) were male. Total average cost per patient/year was €27,711. Direct healthcare costs amounted to €8491 per patient/year (68.8 % due to inpatient costs) and non-healthcare costs to an average of €18,643 per patient/year (89.5 % due to informal care). Productivity loss costs per patient/year were €276. Total costs of hemorrhagic strokes were slightly higher than ischemic (€28,895 vs. €27,569 per patient/year, p = 0.550) without significant differences. The main variables associated with higher costs were the presence of hypertension (€30,332 vs. €23,234 per patient/year, p < 0.05) and the severity of stroke (p < 0.05), both independently associated after a multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The cost of patients admitted to stroke units in Spain is €27,711 per patient/year. More than two-thirds are social costs, mainly informal care. Stroke remains a major burden on health systems and society, so additional efforts are needed for its prevention.

Economic evaluation of treatments for patients with localized prostate cancer in Europe: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Our objective was to assess the efficiency of treatments in patients with localized prostate cancer, by synthesizing available evidence from European economic evaluations through systematic review. METHODS: Articles published 2000-2015 were searched in MEDLINE, EMBASE and NHS EED (Prospero protocol CRD42015022063). Two authors independently selected studies for inclusion and extracted the data. A third reviewer resolved discrepancies. We included European economic evaluations or cost comparison studies, of any modality of surgery or radiotherapy treatments, regardless the comparator/s. Drummond's Checklist was used for quality assessment. RESULTS: After reviewing 8,789 titles, 13 European eligible studies were included: eight cost-utility, two cost-effectiveness, one cost-minimization, and two cost-comparison analyses. Of them, five compared interventions with expectant management, four contrasted robotic with non robotic-assisted surgery, three assessed new modalities of radiotherapy, and three compared radical prostatectomy with brachytherapy. All but two studies scored ≥8 in the quality checklist. Considering scenario and comparator, three interventions were qualified as dominant strategies (active surveillance, robotic-assisted surgery and IMRT), and six were cost-effective (radical prostatectomy, robotic-assisted surgery, IMRT, proton therapy, brachytherapy, and 3DCRT). However, QALY gains in most of them were small. For interventions considered as dominant strategies, QALY gain was 0.013 for active surveillance over radical prostatectomy; and 0.007 for robotic-assisted over non-robotic techniques. The highest QALY gains were 0.57-0.86 for radical prostatectomy vs watchful waiting, and 0.72 for brachytherapy vs conventional radiotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, relevant treatment alternatives for localized prostate cancer are scarcely evaluated in Europe. Very limited available evidence supports the cost-effectiveness of radical prostatectomy over watchful waiting, brachytherapy over radical prostatectomy, and new treatment modalities over traditional procedures. Relevant disparities were detected among studies, mainly based on effectiveness. These apparently contradictory results may be reflecting the difficulty of interpreting small differences between treatments regarding QALY gains.

Hospital Costs Associated With Agitation in the Acute Care Setting.

OBJECTIVE: The study determined hospital costs associated with a diagnosis of agitation among patients at 14 general hospitals in Spain. METHODS: Data from discharge records of adult patients (2008-2012) with a diagnosis of agitation (ICD-9-CM code 293.0) were analyzed. Incremental hospital costs for agitated patients and a control group of patients without agitation were quantified, and the adjusted cost and incremental cost for both groups were compared by use of a recycled-predictions approach. RESULTS: The analysis included 355,496 hospital discharges, 5,334 of which were of patients with a diagnosis of agitation. Among patients with a diagnosis of agitation, hospital stays were significantly longer (12 days versus nine days). A significant difference in mean costs of €472 (95% confidence interval [CI]=€351-€593) was noted between patients with agitation and those in the control group. A recycled-predictions approach showed a difference of €1,593(CI=€1,556-€1,631). CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that agitation increased the use of hospital resources by at least 8%.

Cost-effectiveness and public health benefit of secondary cardiovascular disease prevention from improved adherence using a polypill in the UK.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the public health and economic benefits of adherence to a fixed-dose combination polypill for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular (CV) events in adults with a history of myocardial infarction (MI) in the UK. DESIGN: Markov-model-based cost-effectiveness analysis, informed by systematic reviews, which identified efficacy, utilities and adherence data inputs. SETTING: General practice in the UK. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with a mean age of 64.7 years, most of whom are men with a recent or non-recent diagnosis of MI and for whom secondary preventive medication is indicated and well tolerated. INTERVENTION: Fixed-dose combination polypill (100 mg aspirin, 20 mg atorvastatin and 2.5, 5, or 10 mg ramipril) compared with multiple monotherapy. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: CV events prevented per 1000 patients; cost per life-year gained; and cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained. RESULTS: The model estimates that for each 10% increase in adherence, an additional 6.7% fatal and non-fatal CV events can be prevented. In the base case, over 10 years, the polypill would improve adherence by ∼20% and thereby prevent 47 of 323 (15%) fatal and non-fatal CV events per 1000 patients compared with multiple monotherapy, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £8200 per QALY gained. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses for the base-case assumptions showed an 81.5% chance of the polypill being cost-effective at a willingness-to-pay threshold of £20,000 per QALY gained compared with multiple monotherapy. In scenario analyses that varied structural assumptions, ICERs ranged between cost saving and £21,430 per QALY gained. CONCLUSIONS: Assuming that some 450,000 adults are at risk of MI, a 10 percentage point uptake of the polypill could prevent 3260 CV events and 590 CV deaths over a decade.The polypill appears to be a cost-effective strategy to prevent fatal and non-fatal CV events in the UK.

[Cost-effectiveness of rosuvastatin versus simvastatin, atorvastatin and pitavastatin in patients with high and very high cardiovascular risk in Spain]. / Coste-efectividad de rosuvastatina frente a simvastatina, atorvastatina y pitavastatina en pacientes con riesgo cardiovascular alto y muy alto en España.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: To estimate the cost-effectiveness of rosuvastatin versus simvastatin, atorvastatin and pitavastatin in Spain, according to the European guidelines for the treatment of dyslipidemias in patients with high and very high cardiovascular risk. METHODS: A Markov long-term cost-effectiveness model of rosuvastatin versus simvastatin, atorvastatin and pitavastatin in patients with high and very high cardiovascular risk defined according to 5 factors (sex, age, smoking habit, baseline cholesterol level, and systolic blood pressure) using the SCORE system. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio is expressed in euros per quality adjusted life years and is calculated according to the perspective of the Spanish National Health System. RESULTS: Rosuvastatin is associated with a greater health benefit than the other statins across the considered profiles. Rosuvastatin is cost-effective compared to simvastatin in patients with SCORE risk ≥8% in females and ≥6% in males, while between 5% and the indicated values its cost-effectiveness is conditional to the patient baseline c-LDL level. Rosuvastatin is more cost-effective versus atorvastatin in female profiles associated with a SCORE risk≥11% and male profiles with SCORE risk ≥10%. Rosuvastatin is superior versus pitavastatin in both female and male profiles with high and very high cardiovascular risk. CONCLUSIONS: Rosuvastatin is a cost-effective therapy in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia versus simvastatin, atorvastatin and pitavastatin, especially in specific profiles of patients with high and very high cardiovascular risk factors, according to the SCORE system, in Spain.

Estimating preferences for treatments in patients with localized prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: Studies of patients' preferences for localized prostate cancer treatments have assessed radical prostatectomy and external radiation therapy, but none of them has evaluated brachytherapy. The aim of our study was to assess the preferences and willingness to pay of patients with localized prostate cancer who had been treated with radical prostatectomy, external radiation therapy, or brachytherapy, and their related urinary, sexual, and bowel side effects. METHODS AND MATERIALS: This was an observational, prospective cohort study with follow-up until 5 years after treatment. A total of 704 patients with low or intermediate risk localized prostate cancer were consecutively recruited from 2003 to 2005. The estimation of preferences was conducted using time trade-off, standard gamble, and willingness-to-pay methods. Side effects were measured with the Expanded Prostate Index Composite (EPIC), a prostate cancer-specific questionnaire. Tobit models were constructed to assess the impact of treatment and side effects on patients' preferences. Propensity score was applied to adjust for treatment selection bias. RESULTS: Of the 580 patients reporting preferences, 165 were treated with radical prostatectomy, 152 with external radiation therapy, and 263 with brachytherapy. Both time trade-off and standard gamble results indicated that the preferences of patients treated with brachytherapy were 0.06 utilities higher than those treated with radical prostatectomy (P=.01). Similarly, willingness-to-pay responses showed a difference of €57/month (P=.004) between these 2 treatments. Severe urinary incontinence presented an independent impact on the preferences elicited (P<.05), whereas no significant differences were found by bowel and sexual side effects. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that urinary incontinence is the side effect with the highest impact on preferences and that brachytherapy and external radiation therapy are more valued than radical prostatectomy. These time trade-off and standard gamble preference assessments as well as the willingness-to-pay estimation could be useful to perform respectively cost-utility or cost-benefit analyses, which can guide health policy decisions.

Genomic profile of breast cancer: cost-effectiveness analysis from the Spanish National Healthcare System perspective.

BACKGROUND: Cost-effectiveness analysis of MammaPrint(®) (70-gene signature) in the diagnosis of early breast cancer as a prognosis assay to study the risk of tumor recurrence to administer adjuvant chemotherapy. METHODS: Markov model assuming a cohort of 60-year-old women with breast cancer. Treatment costs and effects were assessed by comparing the 5-year, 10-year and lifetime risk of recurrence using Adjuvant! Online(®) (online algorithm), 70-gene signature or Oncotype DX(®) (21-gene assay). RESULTS: 70-gene signature showed a life expectancy of 23.55 years at lifetime. Life expectancy was lower for 21-gene assay and online algorithm, with associated quality-adjusted life year gains up to 0.23 and 0.75, respectively, with 70-gene signature. At year 5, the mean cost of 21-gene assay, 70-gene signature and online algorithm was €7100, €6380 and €4580, respectively. 70-gene signature was dominant versus 21-gene assay at any time horizon and would be cost-effective from year 7 versus online algorithm (lifetime: €1457 per quality-adjusted life years gained). CONCLUSIONS: 70-gene signature was a dominant strategy over 21-gene assay and was highly cost-effective versus online algorithm.

Cost-effectiveness of dabigatran for stroke prevention in non-valvular atrial fibrillation in Spain.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Assessment of the cost-effectiveness of dabigatran for the prevention of stroke and systemic embolism in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation in Spain, from the perspective of the National Health System. METHODS: Adaptation of a Markov chain model that simulates the natural history of the disease over the lifetime of a cohort of 10,000 patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation. Model comparators were warfarin in a first scenario, and a real world prescribing pattern in a second scenario, in which 60% of the patients were treated with vitamin K antagonists, 30% with acetylsalicylic acid, and 10% received no treatment. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. RESULTS: Dabigatran reduced the occurrence of clinical events in both scenarios, providing gains in quantity and quality of life. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for dabigatran compared to warfarin was 17,581 euros/quality-adjusted life year gained and 14,118 euros/quality-adjusted life year gained when compared to the real world prescribing pattern. Efficiency in subgroups was demonstrated. When the social costs were incorporated into the analysis, dabigatran was found to be a dominant strategy (ie, more effective and less costly). The model proved to be robust. CONCLUSIONS: From the perspective of the Spanish National Health System, dabigatran is an efficient strategy for the prevention of stroke in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation compared to warfarin and to the real-world prescribing pattern; incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were below the 30,000 euros/quality-adjusted life year threshold in both scenarios. Dabigatran would also be a dominant strategy from the societal perspective, providing society with a more effective therapy at a lower cost compared to the other 2 alternatives. Full English text available from:www.revespcardiol.org.