Segmentation and fragmentation of health systems and the quest for universal health coverage: conceptual clarifications from the Mexican case.

Health systems are complex entities. The Mexican health system includes the private and public sectors, and subsystems that target different populations based on corporatist criteria. Lack of unity and its consequences can be better understood using two concepts, segmentation and fragmentation. These reveal mechanisms and strategies that impede progress toward universality and equity in Mexico and other low- and middle-income countries. Segmentation refers to separation of the population by position in the labour market. Fragmentation refers to institutions, and to financial aspects, health care levels, states' systems of care, and organizational models. These elements explain inequitable allocation of resources and packages of health services offered by each institution to its population. Overcoming segmentation will require a shift from employment to citizenship as the basis for eligibility for public health care. Shortcomings of fragmentation can be avoided by establishing a common package of guaranteed benefits. Mexico illustrates how these two concepts characterize a common reality in low- and middle-income countries.

Overcoming the health systems' segmentation to achieve universal health coverage in Mexico.

Health is a human right that everyone should be able to exercise. Yet health systems segmentation and fragmentation are a major challenge to advancing universal health coverage (UHC) and achieving health equity. Between 2019 and 2020, Mexico launched a profound restructuration of its health system claiming its aim was to attain UHC, free healthcare services and drugs and to combat corruption. We analyse the implications of the modifications of the Mexican Constitution and the dismantling of the Seguro Popular de Salud (Popular Health Insurance) in relation to segmentation. We argue that, instead of advancing towards UHC and equality, these changes reinforce inequalities and that transforming health systems must respect human rights.

[Embedding research into health services in Latin America and the Caribbean: experiences and challenges of the Technical Support CenterExperiências e desafios do Centro de Apoio Técnico na pesquisa integrada aos serviços na América Latina e Caribe]. / Experiencias y retos del Centro de Apoyo Técnico en la investigación integrada en los servicios en América Latina y el Caribe.

This article describes the main models for embedding research and the successful experiences and challenges faced in joint work by researchers and decisionmakers who participated in the Embedding Research for the Sustainable Development Goals (ER-SDG) initiative, and the experience of the Technical Support Center. In June 2018, funding was granted to 13 pre-selected research projects from 11 middle- and low-income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Paraguay, and Peru). The projects focused on the system-, policy-, or program-level changes required to improve health and build on the joint work of researchers and decisionmakers, with a view to bringing together evidence production and decision-making in health systems and services. The Technical Support Center supported and guided the production of quality results useful for decision-making. This experience confirmed the value of initiatives such as ER-SDG in consolidating bridges between research on the implementation of health policies, programs, and systems, and the officials responsible for operating health-related programs, services, and interventions. It highlighted the importance of both respecting and taking advantage of each context-and the specific arrangements and patterns in the relationships between researchers and decisionmakers-through incentives for embedded research.

Neste artigo são descritos os principais modelos de integração, as experiências de êxito e os desafios do trabalho conjunto de pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões que participam da iniciativa Incorporação da Pesquisa para Avançar no Cumprimento dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (Embedding Research for the Sustainable Development Goals, ER-SDG) e da experiência do Centro de Apoio Técnico (CAT). Em junho de 2018, realizou-se a concessão de financiamento e pré-seleção de 13 projetos de pesquisa provenientes de 11 países de baixa e média renda da América Latina e Caribe (Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Colômbia, Equador, Guatemala, Guiana, Haiti, Paraguai, Peru e República Dominicana). Os projetos deveriam enfocar as mudanças necessárias no sistema, políticas ou programas para melhorar a saúde e fundar-se no trabalho conjunto de pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões visando aproximar a produção de evidências à tomada de decisão nos sistemas e serviços de saúde. O CAT forneceu suporte e orientação à produção de resultados úteis e de qualidade para a tomada de decisão. A experiência confirmou o valor de iniciativas como a ER-SDG para consolidar pontes entre o mundo da pesquisa voltada à implementação de políticas, programas e sistemas de saúde e o mundo dos encarregados de gerir estes programas, serviços e intervenções de saúde. Deve-se enfatizar a necessidade de respeitar e aproveitar cada contexto e os arranjos e padrões próprios da relação entre pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões criando incentivos à integração.

Experiencias y retos del Centro de Apoyo Técnico en la investigación integrada en los servicios en América Latina y el Caribe / Embedding research into health services in Latin America and the Caribbean: experiences and challenges of the Technical Support Center / Experiências e desafios do Centro de Apoio Técnico na pesquisa integrada aos serviços na América Latina e Caribe

RESUMEN En este artículo se describen los principales modelos de integración, las experiencias de éxito y los retos del trabajo conjunto de los investigadores y los tomadores de decisiones participantes en la iniciativa Incorporación de la Investigación para Avanzar en el Cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ER-SDG), y la experiencia del Centro de Apoyo Técnico (CAT). En junio de 2018 se otorgó financiamiento, previa selección, a 13 proyectos de investigación de 11 países de ingresos medios y bajos de América Latina y el Caribe (Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haití, Paraguay, Perú y República Dominicana). Los proyectos debían estar centrados en los cambios que se requieren a nivel de sistema, políticas o programas para mejorar la salud y basarse en el trabajo conjunto de investigadores y tomadores de decisiones, a fin de acercar la generación de evidencias a la toma de decisiones en los sistemas y servicios de salud. El CAT apoyó y orientó la producción de resultados de calidad y de utilidad para la toma de decisiones. La experiencia confirmó el valor de iniciativas como ER-SDG en la consolidación de puentes entre el mundo de la investigación sobre implementación de políticas, programas y sistemas de salud, y el mundo de los funcionarios encargados de operar esos programas, servicios e intervenciones relacionadas con la salud. Se resalta la necesidad de respetar y aprovechar cada contexto, y los arreglos y patrones específicos de relación entre investigadores y tomadores de decisiones, mediante incentivos para la integración.

ABSTRACT This article describes the main models for embedding research and the successful experiences and challenges faced in joint work by researchers and decisionmakers who participated in the Embedding Research for the Sustainable Development Goals (ER-SDG) initiative, and the experience of the Technical Support Center. In June 2018, funding was granted to 13 pre-selected research projects from 11 middle- and low-income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Paraguay, and Peru). The projects focused on the system-, policy-, or program-level changes required to improve health and build on the joint work of researchers and decisionmakers, with a view to bringing together evidence production and decision-making in health systems and services. The Technical Support Center supported and guided the production of quality results useful for decision-making. This experience confirmed the value of initiatives such as ER-SDG in consolidating bridges between research on the implementation of health policies, programs, and systems, and the officials responsible for operating health-related programs, services, and interventions. It highlighted the importance of both respecting and taking advantage of each context—and the specific arrangements and patterns in the relationships between researchers and decisionmakers—through incentives for embedded research.

RESUMO Neste artigo são descritos os principais modelos de integração, as experiências de êxito e os desafios do trabalho conjunto de pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões que participam da iniciativa Incorporação da Pesquisa para Avançar no Cumprimento dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (Embedding Research for the Sustainable Development Goals, ER-SDG) e da experiência do Centro de Apoio Técnico (CAT). Em junho de 2018, realizou-se a concessão de financiamento e pré-seleção de 13 projetos de pesquisa provenientes de 11 países de baixa e média renda da América Latina e Caribe (Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Colômbia, Equador, Guatemala, Guiana, Haiti, Paraguai, Peru e República Dominicana). Os projetos deveriam enfocar as mudanças necessárias no sistema, políticas ou programas para melhorar a saúde e fundar-se no trabalho conjunto de pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões visando aproximar a produção de evidências à tomada de decisão nos sistemas e serviços de saúde. O CAT forneceu suporte e orientação à produção de resultados úteis e de qualidade para a tomada de decisão. A experiência confirmou o valor de iniciativas como a ER-SDG para consolidar pontes entre o mundo da pesquisa voltada à implementação de políticas, programas e sistemas de saúde e o mundo dos encarregados de gerir estes programas, serviços e intervenções de saúde. Deve-se enfatizar a necessidade de respeitar e aproveitar cada contexto e os arranjos e padrões próprios da relação entre pesquisadores e responsáveis por tomar decisões criando incentivos à integração.

[Tacit and explicit knowledge: comparative analysis of the prioritization of maternal health problems in Mexico]. / Conocimientos tácito y explícito: análisis comparativo de la priorización de problemas de salud materna en México.

OBJECTIVE: To identify coincidences and differences in the identification and prioritization of maternal healthcare service problems in Mexico based on the perspective of tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge that may offer evidence that can contribute to attaining the Sustainable Development Goals. METHODS: Mixed study performed in three stages: 1) systematization of maternal healthcare service problems identified by tacit knowledge (derived from professional experience); 2) identification of maternal healthcare service problems in Latin America addressed by explicit knowledge (scientific publications); 3) comparison between the problems identified by tacit and explicit knowledge. RESULTS: The main problems of maternal health services identified by tacit knowledge are related to poor quality of care, while the predominant problems studied in the scientific literature are related to access barriers to health services. Approximately, 70% of the problems identified by tacit knowledge are also mentioned in the explicit knowledge. Conversely, 70% of the problems identified in the literature are also considered by tacit knowledge. Nevertheless, when looking at the problems taken one by one, no statistically significant similarities were found. CONCLUSIONS: The study discovered that the identification of maternal health service problems by tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge is fairly comparable, according to the comparability index used in the study, and highlights the interest of integrating both approaches in order to improve prioritization and decision making towards the Sustainable Development Goals.

Enhancing evidence informed policymaking in complex health systems: lessons from multi-site collaborative approaches.

BACKGROUND: There is an increasing interest worldwide to ensure evidence-informed health policymaking as a means to improve health systems performance. There is a need to engage policymakers in collaborative approaches to generate and use knowledge in real world settings. To address this gap, we implemented two interventions based on iterative exchanges between researchers and policymakers/implementers. This article aims to reflect on the implementation and impact of these multi-site evidence-to-policy approaches implemented in low-resource settings. METHODS: The first approach was implemented in Mexico and Nicaragua and focused on implementation research facilitated by communities of practice (CoP) among maternal health stakeholders. We conducted a process evaluation of the CoPs and assessed the professionals' abilities to acquire, analyse, adapt and apply research. The second approach, called the Policy BUilding Demand for evidence in Decision making through Interaction and Enhancing Skills (Policy BUDDIES), was implemented in South Africa and Cameroon. The intervention put forth a 'buddying' process to enhance demand and use of systematic reviews by sub-national policymakers. The Policy BUDDIES initiative was assessed using a mixed-methods realist evaluation design. RESULTS: In Mexico, the implementation research supported by CoPs triggered monitoring by local health organizations of the quality of maternal healthcare programs. Health programme personnel involved in CoPs in Mexico and Nicaragua reported improved capacities to identify and use evidence in solving implementation problems. In South Africa, Policy BUDDIES informed a policy framework for medication adherence for chronic diseases, including both HIV and non-communicable diseases. Policymakers engaged in the buddying process reported an enhanced recognition of the value of research, and greater demand for policy-relevant knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: The collaborative evidence-to-policy approaches underline the importance of iterations and continuity in the engagement of researchers and policymakers/programme managers, in order to account for swift evolutions in health policy planning and implementation. In developing and supporting evidence-to-policy interventions, due consideration should be given to fit-for-purpose approaches, as different needs in policymaking cycles require adapted processes and knowledge. Greater consideration should be provided to approaches embedding the use of research in real-world policymaking, better suited to the complex adaptive nature of health systems.

Mapping the use of research to support strategies tackling maternal and child health inequities: evidence from six countries in Africa and Latin America.

BACKGROUND: Striving to foster collaboration among countries suffering from maternal and child health (MCH) inequities, the MASCOT project mapped and analyzed the use of research in strategies tackling them in 11 low- and middle-income countries. This article aims to present the way in which research influenced MCH policies and programs in six of these countries - three in Africa and three in Latin America. METHODS: Qualitative research using a thematic synthesis narrative process was used to identify and describe who is producing what kind of research, how research is funded, how inequities are approached by research and policies, the countries' research capacities, and the type of evidence base that MCH policies and programs use. Four tools were designed for these purposes: an online survey for researchers, a semi-structured interview with decision makers, and two content analysis guides: one for policy and programs documents and one for scientific articles. RESULTS: Three modalities of research utilization were observed in the strategies tackling MCH inequities in the six included countries - instrumental, conceptual and symbolic. Instrumental utilization directly relates the formulation and contents of the strategies with research results, and is the least used within the analyzed policies and programs. Even though research is considered as an important input to support decision making and most of the analyzed countries count five or six relevant MCH research initiatives, in most cases, the actual impact of research is not clearly identifiable. CONCLUSIONS: While MCH research is increasing in low- and middle-income countries, the impact of its outcomes on policy formulation is low. We did not identify a direct relationship between the nature of the financial support organizations and the kind of evidence utilization within the policy process. There is still a visible gap between researchers and policymakers regarding their different intentions to link evidence and decision making processes.

[The health system of Colombia]. / Sistema de salud de Colombia.

This document briefly describes the health conditions of the Colombian population and, in more detail, the characteristics of the Colombian health system. The description of the system includes its structure and coverage; financing sources; expenditure in health; physical material and human resources available; monitoring and evaluation procedures; and mechanisms through which the population participates in the evaluation of the system. Salient among the most recent innovations implemented in the Colombian health system are the modification of the Compulsory Health Plan and the capitation payment unit, the vertical integration of the health promotion enterprises and the institutions in charge of the provision of services and the mobilization of additional resources to meet the objectives of universal coverage and the homologation of health benefits among health regimes.

[The health system of Chile]. / Sistema de salud de Chile.

This paper describes the Chilean health system, including its structure, financing, beneficiaries, and its physical, material and human resources. This system has two sectors, public and private. The public sector comprises all the organisms that constitute the National System of Health Services, which covers 70% of the population, including the rural and urban poor, the low middle-class, the retired, and the self-employed professionals and technicians.The private sector covers 17.5% of the population, mostly the upper middle-class and the high-income population. A small proportion of the population uses private health services and pays for them out-of-pocket. Around l0% of the population is covered by other public agencies, basically the Health Services for the Armed Forces. The system was recently reformed with the establishment of a Universal System of Explicit Entitlements, which operates through a Universal Plan of Explicit Entitlements (AUGE), which guarantees timely access to treatment for 56 health problems, including cancer in children, breast cancer, ischaemic heart disease, HIV/AIDS and diabetes.

[The health system of Guatemala]. / Sistema de salud de Guatemala.

This paper describes the health conditions in Guatemala and, in more detail, the characteristics of the Guatemalan health system, including its structure en coverage, its financial sources, the stewardship functions developed by the Ministry of Health, as well as the generation of health information and the development of research activities. It also discusses the recent efforts to extend coverage of essential health services, mostly to poor rural areas.The most recent innovations also discussed in this paper include the Program for the Expansion of Coverage of Essential Services, the Program to Expand Access to Essential Drugs and the agreements between the Ministry of Health and several non-governmental organizations to provide essential services in rural settings.

[The health system of Venezuela]. / Sistema de salud de Venezuela.

This paper describes the Venezuelan health system, including its structure and coverage, financial sources, human and material resources and its stewardship functions. This system comprises a public and a private sector. The public sector includes the Ministry of Popular Power for Health (MS) and several social security institutions, salient among them the Venezuelan Institute for Social Security (IVSS). The MH is financed with federal, state and county contributions. The IVSS is financed with employer, employee and government contributions. These two agencies provide services in their own facilities. The private sector includes providers offering services on an out-of-pocket basis and private insurance companies. The Venezuelan health system is undergoing a process of reform since the adoption of the 1999 Constitution which calls for the establishment of a national public health system. The reform process is now headed by the Barrio Adentro program.

[The health system of Argentina]. / Sistema de salud de Argentina.

This paper describes the health system of Argentina.This system has three sectors: public, social security and private.The public sector includes the national and provincial ministries as well as the network of public hospitals and primary health care units which provide care to the poor and uninsured population. This sector is financed with taxes and payments made by social security beneficiaries that use public health care facilities. The social security sector or Obras Sociales (OS) covers all workers of the formal economy and their families. Most OS operate through contracts with private providers and are financed with payroll contributions of employers and employees. Finally, the private sector includes all those private providers offering services to individuals, OS beneficiaries and all those with private health insurance.This sector also includes private insurance agencies called Prepaid Medicine Enterprises, financed mostly through premiums paid by families and/or employers.This paper also discusses some of the recent innovations implemented in Argentina, including the program Remediar.

Sistema de salud de Argentina / The health system of Argentina

En este artículo se describe el sistema de salud de Argentina, que está compuesto por tres sectores: público, de seguridad social y privado. El sector público está integrado por los ministerios nacional y provincial, y la red de hospitales y centros de salud públicos que prestan atención gratuita a toda persona que lo demande, fundamentalmente a personas sin seguridad social y sin capacidad de pago. Se financia con recursos fiscales y recibe pagos ocasionales de parte del sistema de seguridad social cuando atiende a sus afiliados. El sector del seguro social obligatorio está organizado en torno a las Obras Sociales (OS), que aseguran y prestan servicios a los trabajadores y sus familias. La mayoría de las OS operan a través de contratos con prestadores privados y se financian con contribuciones de los trabajadores y patronales. El sector privado está conformado por profesionales de la salud y establecimientos que atienden a demandantes individuales, a los beneficiarios de las OS y de los seguros privados. Este sector también incluye entidades de seguro voluntario llamadas Empresas de Medicina Prepaga que se financian sobre todo con primas que pagan las familias y/o las empresas. En este trabajo también se describen las innovaciones recientes en el sistema de salud, incluyendo el Programa Remediar.

This paper describes the health system of Argentina.This system has three sectors: public, social security and private.The public sector includes the national and provincial ministries as well as the network of public hospitals and primary health care units which provide care to the poor and uninsured population. This sector is financed with taxes and payments made by social security beneficiaries that use public health care facilities. The social security sector or Obras Sociales (OS) covers all workers of the formal economy and their families. Most OS operate through contracts with private providers and are financed with payroll contributions of employers and employees. Finally, the private sector includes all those private providers offering services to individuals, OS beneficiaries and all those with private health insurance.This sector also includes private insurance agencies called Prepaid Medicine Enterprises, financed mostly through premiums paid by families and/or employers.This paper also discusses some of the recent innovations implemented in Argentina, including the program Remediar.

Sistema de salud de Chile / The health system of Chile

En este trabajo se describe el sistema de salud de Chile, incluyendo su estructura, financiamiento, beneficiarios y recursos físicos, materiales y humanos de los que dispone. Este sistema está compuesto por dos sectores, público y privado. El sector público está formado por todos los organismos que constituyen el Sistema Nacional de Servicios de Salud y cubre aproximadamente a 70 por ciento de la población, incluyendo a los pobres del campo y las ciudades, la clase media baja y los jubilados, así como los profesionales y técnicos. El sector privado cubre aproximadamente a 17.5 por ciento de la población perteneciente a los grupos sociales de mayores ingresos. Un pequeño sector de la población, perteneciente a la clase alta, realiza pagos directos de bolsillo a proveedores privados de servicios de atención a la salud. Alrededor de 10 por ciento de la población está cubierta por otras agencias públicas, fundamentalmente los Servicios de Salud de las Fuerzas Armadas. Recientemente el sistema se reformó creando el Régimen General de Garantías en Salud, que establece un Sistema Universal con Garantías Explícitas que se tradujo, en 2005, en el Plan de Acceso Universal con Garantías Explícitas (AUGE), que garantiza el acceso oportuno a servicios de calidad para 56 problemas de salud, incluyendo cáncer en niños, cáncer de mama, trastornos isquémicos del corazón, VIH/SIDA y diabetes.

This paper describes the Chilean health system, including its structure, financing, beneficiaries, and its physical, material and human resources. This system has two sectors, public and private. The public sector comprises all the organisms that constitute the National System of Health Services, which covers 70 percent of the population, including the rural and urban poor, the low middle-class, the retired, and the self-employed professionals and technicians.The private sector covers 17.5 percent of the population, mostly the upper middle-class and the high-income population. A small proportion of the population uses private health services and pays for them out-of-pocket. Around l0 percent of the population is covered by other public agencies, basically the Health Services for the Armed Forces. The system was recently reformed with the establishment of a Universal System of Explicit Entitlements, which operates through a Universal Plan of Explicit Entitlements (AUGE), which guarantees timely access to treatment for 56 health problems, including cancer in children, breast cancer, ischaemic heart disease, HIV/AIDS and diabetes.

Sistema de salud de Colombia / The health system of Colombia

En este trabajo se presenta una breve descripción de las condiciones de salud de Colombia y una descripción detallada del sistema colombiano de salud. Esta última incluye una descripción de su estructura y cobertura, sus fuentes de financiamiento, el gasto en salud, los recursos con los que cuenta, quién vigila y evalúa al sector salud y qué herramientas de participación tienen los usuarios. Dentro de las innovaciones más recientes del sistema se incluyen las modificaciones al Plan Obligatorio de Salud y a los montos de la unidad de pago por capitación, la integración vertical entre empresas promotoras de salud y las instituciones prestadoras de servicios, así como el establecimiento de nuevas fuentes de recursos para lograr la universalidad e igualar los planes de beneficios entre los distintos regímenes.

This document briefly describes the health conditions of the Colombian population and, in more detail, the characteristics of the Colombian health system. The description of the system includes its structure and coverage; financing sources; expenditure in health; physical material and human resources available; monitoring and evaluation procedures; and mechanisms through which the population participates in the evaluation of the system. Salient among the most recent innovations implemented in the Colombian health system are the modification of the Compulsory Health Plan and the capitation payment unit, the vertical integration of the health promotion enterprises and the institutions in charge of the provision of services and the mobilization of additional resources to meet the objectives of universal coverage and the homologation of health benefits among health regimes.

Sistema de salud de Guatemala / The health system of Guatemala

En este trabajo se describen las condiciones de salud y el sistema de salud de Guatemala, incluyendo su estructura y cobertura, sus fuentes de financiamiento, las actividades de rectoría que en él se desarrollan, así como las tareas de generación de información en salud e investigación. También se discuten los esfuerzos por ampliar la cobertura de servicios básicos, sobre todo a las comunidades rurales pobres. Destacan dentro de las innovaciones recientes del sistema guatemalteco de salud el Programa de Extensión de Cobertura de Servicios Básicos y el Programa de Accesibilidad de Medicamentos, así como los acuerdos del Ministerio de Salud con organizaciones de la sociedad civil para prestar servicios básicos en comunidades rurales.

This paper describes the health conditions in Guatemala and, in more detail, the characteristics of the Guatemalan health system, including its structure en coverage, its financial sources, the stewardship functions developed by the Ministry of Health, as well as the generation of health information and the development of research activities. It also discusses the recent efforts to extend coverage of essential health services, mostly to poor rural areas.The most recent innovations also discussed in this paper include the Program for the Expansion of Coverage of Essential Services, the Program to Expand Access to Essential Drugs and the agreements between the Ministry of Health and several non-governmental organizations to provide essential services in rural settings.

Sistema de salud de Venezuela / The health system of Venezuela

En este artículo se describe el sistema de salud de Venezuela, incluyendo su estructura y cobertura, sus fuentes de financiamiento, los recursos humanos y materiales con los que cuenta, y las actividades de rectoría que en él se desarrollan. Este sistema cuenta con un sector público y un sector privado. El sector público está constituido por el Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Salud (MS) y diversas instituciones de seguridad social, dentro de las que destaca el Instituto Venezolano de los Seguros Sociales (IVSS). El MS se financia con recursos del gobierno central, estados y municipios. El IVSS se financia con cotizaciones patronales, cotizaciones de los trabajadores y con aportes del gobierno. Ambas instituciones cuentan con su propia red de atención ambulatoria y hospitalaria. El sector privado está constituido por prestadores de servicios que reciben pagos de bolsillo y por compañías aseguradoras. El sistema de salud venezolano atraviesa por un proceso de reforma desde la aprobación de la Constitución de 1999 que plantea la creación de un Sistema Público Nacional de Salud cuya punta de lanza hoy es el programa Barrio Adentro.

This paper describes the Venezuelan health system, including its structure and coverage, financial sources, human and material resources and its stewardship functions. This system comprises a public and a private sector. The public sector includes the Ministry of Popular Power for Health (MS) and several social security institutions, salient among them the Venezuelan Institute for Social Security (IVSS). The MH is financed with federal, state and county contributions. The IVSS is financed with employer, employee and government contributions. These two agencies provide services in their own facilities. The private sector includes providers offering services on an out-of-pocket basis and private insurance companies. The Venezuelan health system is undergoing a process of reform since the adoption of the 1999 Constitution which calls for the establishment of a national public health system. The reform process is now headed by the Barrio Adentro program.