Value of Electronic Health Records Measured Using Financial and Clinical Outcomes: Quantitative Study.

BACKGROUND: The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009 was legislated to reduce health care costs, improve quality, and increase patient safety. Providers and organizations were incentivized to exhibit meaningful use of certified electronic health record (EHR) systems in order to achieve this objective. EHR adoption is an expensive investment, given the resources and capital that are invested. Due to the cost of the investment, a return on the EHR adoption investment is expected. OBJECTIVE: This study performed a value analysis of EHRs. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between EHR adoption levels and financial and clinical outcomes by combining both financial and clinical outcomes into one conceptual model. METHODS: We examined the multivariate relationships between different levels of EHR adoption and financial and clinical outcomes, along with the time variant control variables, using moderation analysis with a longitudinal fixed effects model. Since it is unknown as to when hospitals begin experiencing improvements in financial outcomes, additional analysis was conducted using a 1- or 2-year lag for profit margin ratios. RESULTS: A total of 5768 hospital-year observations were analyzed over the course of 4 years. According to the results of the moderation analysis, as the readmission rate increases by 1 unit, the effect of a 1-unit increase in EHR adoption level on the operating margin decreases by 5.38%. Hospitals with higher readmission payment adjustment factors have lower penalties. CONCLUSIONS: This study fills the gap in the literature by evaluating individual relationships between EHR adoption levels and financial and clinical outcomes, in addition to evaluating the relationship between EHR adoption level and financial outcomes, with clinical outcomes as moderators. This study provided statistically significant evidence (P<.05), indicating that there is a relationship between EHR adoption level and operating margins when this relationship is moderated by readmission rates, meaning hospitals that have adopted EHRs could see a reduction in their readmission rates and an increase in operating margins. This finding could further be supported by evaluating more recent data to analyze whether hospitals increasing their level of EHR adoption would decrease readmission rates, resulting in an increase in operating margins. Hospitals would incur lower penalties as a result of improved readmission rates, which would contribute toward improved operating margins.

Competency analysis and educational strategies to meet the demand for a learning health system workforce.

Learning Health Systems (LHS) require a workforce with specific knowledge and skills to identify and address healthcare quality issues, develop solutions to address those issues, and sustain and spread improvements within and outside the organization. Educational programs are tasked with designing learning opportunities that can meet these organizational needs. This manuscript explores different mechanisms for addressing challenges to creating educational programs to prepare individuals who can work in and lead LHS. Strategies and recommendations for educational programs to support the LHS include the creation of a new program, collaborating across existing programs, and producing a set of instructional materials.

Mapping 2 Decades of Research in Health Services Research, Health Policy, and Health Economics Journals.

OBJECTIVE: To identify major research topics and exhibit trends in these topics in 15 health services research, health policy, and health economics journals over 2 decades. DATA SOURCES: The study sample of 35,159 abstracts (1999-2020) were collected from PubMed for 15 journals. STUDY DESIGN: The study used a 3-phase approach for text analyses: (1) developing the corpus of 40,618 references from PubMed (excluding 5459 of those without abstract or author information); (2) preprocessing and generating the term list using natural language processing to eliminate irrelevant textual data and identify important terms and phrases; (3) analyzing the preprocessed text data using latent semantic analysis, topic analyses, and multiple correspondence analysis. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Application of analyses generated 16 major research topics: (1) implementation/intervention science; (2) HIV and women's health; (3) outcomes research and quality; (4) veterans/military studies; (5) provider/primary-care interventions; (6) geriatrics and formal/informal care; (7) policies and health outcomes; (8) medication treatment/therapy; (9) patient interventions; (10) health insurance legislation and policies; (11) public health policies; (12) literature reviews; (13) cost-effectiveness and economic evaluation; (14) cancer care; (15) workforce issues; and (16) socioeconomic status and disparities. The 2-dimensional map revealed that some journals have stronger associations with specific topics. Findings were not consistent with previous studies based on user perceptions. CONCLUSION: Findings of this study can be used by the stakeholders of health services research, policy, and economics to develop future research agendas, target journal submissions, and generate interdisciplinary solutions by examining overlapping journals for particular topics.

Assessment-based health informatics curriculum improvement.

OBJECTIVE: Informatics programs need assurance that their curricula prepare students for intended roles as well as ensuring that students have mastered the appropriate competencies. The objective of this study is to describe a method for using assessment data to identify areas for curriculum, student selection, and assessment improvement. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A multiple-choice examination covering the content in the Commission for Health Accreditation of Informatics and Information Management Education curricular facets/elements was developed and administered to 2 cohorts of entering students prior to the beginning of the program and to the first cohort after completion of the first year's courses. The reliability of the examination was assessed using Cronbach's alpha. Content validity was assessed by having 2 raters assess the match of the items to the Commission for Health Accreditation of Informatics and Information Management Education requirements. Construct validation included comparison of exam performance of instructed vs uninstructed students. Criterion-related validity was assessed by examining the relationship of background characteristics to exam performance and by comparing examination performance to graduate Grade Point Average (GPA). RESULTS: Reliability of the examination was 0.91 and 0.82 (Cohort 1 pre/post-tests) and 0.43 (Cohort 2 pretest). Both raters judged 76% of the test items as appropriate. There were statistically significant differences between the instructed (Cohort 1 post-test) and uninstructed (Cohort 2 pretest) students (t = 2.95 P < .01), as well as between the Cohort 1 pre/post-tests (t = 6.52, P < .001). Neither the background variables nor the graduate GPA were significantly correlated with the examination scores. CONCLUSION: We found that the examination had generally good psychometric properties and the exceptions could be used to identify areas for curriculum and assessment improvement.

Hospital budget increase for information technology during phase 1 meaningful use.

Federal policies have a significant effect on how businesses spend money. The 2009 HITECH (Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act) authorized incentive payments through Medicare and Medicaid to clinicians and hospitals when they use certified electronic health records privately and securely to achieve specified improvements in care delivery. Federal incentive payments were offered in 2011 for hospitals that had satisfied "meaningful use" criteria. A longitudinal study of nonfederal hospital information technology (IT) budgets (N = 493) during the years 2009 to 2011 found increases in the percentage of hospital annual operating budgets allocated to IT in the years leading up to these federal incentives. This increase was most pronounced among hospitals receiving high proportions of their reimbursements from Medicaid, followed by hospitals receiving high proportions of their reimbursements from Medicare, possibly indicating a budget shift during this period to more IT spending to achieve meaningful-use policy guidelines.

Cost implications of human and automated follow-up in ambulatory care.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the costs of human and automated follow-up processes in ambulatory care. STUDY DESIGN: Analysis of costs of nurse-initiated and interactive voice response (IVR) system follow-up interventions. METHODS: Using national cost data and data on follow-up processes and outcomes from a previous study, we examined the costs to the healthcare system and providers of developing a follow-up process using nurse-initiated telephone calls compared with calls made by an IVR. RESULTS: Whether using nurse-initiated telephone calls or IVR calls, costs over the first 2 years of follow-up for a practice assumed to have 4800 acute care patient visits per year are approximately the same. After 2 years, IVR follow-up is approximately $9000 per year less expensive than nurse follow-up. In addition, overall cost savings are greater with IVR. CONCLUSIONS: Follow-up of ambulatory care patients is a way to assess risks of future problems and associated costs and to improve quality of care. An automated follow-up process using IVR is more efficient than one based on nurse-initiated follow-up calls.

Distributed Health Outcome Monitoring and Evaluation Using i2b2.

There is a pressing need for better tools to support comparative effectiveness research (CER) on a national scale. In addition, little is known about within-class outcome disparities for commonly used cardiovascular and diabetes medications. In this presentation, we will describe our experience implementing a new i2b2 cell, the Health Outcome Monitoring and Evaluation Cell (HOME), at 5 collaborating Clinical Translational Science Award sites (CTSAs) in the U.S. We will also describe the motivations to developing a common query framework, and findings related to the implementation and use of the HOME cell, to perform distributed CER queries. Our focus is on the assessment of race, gender, and location-based disparities in outcomes for patients treated with similar mediations for hypertension, dyslipidemias, and diabetes.

Healthcare information technology and economics.

At the 2011 American College of Medical Informatics (ACMI) Winter Symposium we studied the overlap between health IT and economics and what leading healthcare delivery organizations are achieving today using IT that might offer paths for the nation to follow for using health IT in healthcare reform. We recognized that health IT by itself can improve health value, but its main contribution to health value may be that it can make possible new care delivery models to achieve much larger value. Health IT is a critically important enabler to fundamental healthcare system changes that may be a way out of our current, severe problem of rising costs and national deficit. We review the current state of healthcare costs, federal health IT stimulus programs, and experiences of several leading organizations, and offer a model for how health IT fits into our health economic future.

Challenges in ethics, safety, best practices, and oversight regarding HIT vendors, their customers, and patients: a report of an AMIA special task force.

The current commercial health information technology (HIT) arena encompasses a number of competing firms that provide electronic health applications to hospitals, clinical practices, and other healthcare-related entities. Such applications collect, store, and analyze patient information. Some vendors incorporate contract language whereby purchasers of HIT systems, such as hospitals and clinics, must indemnify vendors for malpractice or personal injury claims, even if those events are not caused or fostered by the purchasers. Some vendors require contract clauses that force HIT system purchasers to adopt vendor-defined policies that prevent the disclosure of errors, bugs, design flaws, and other HIT-software-related hazards. To address this issue, the AMIA Board of Directors appointed a Task Force to provide an analysis and insights. Task Force findings and recommendations include: patient safety should trump all other values; corporate concerns about liability and intellectual property ownership may be valid but should not over-ride all other considerations; transparency and a commitment to patient safety should govern vendor contracts; institutions are duty-bound to provide ethics education to purchasers and users, and should commit publicly to standards of corporate conduct; and vendors, system purchasers, and users should encourage and assist in each others' efforts to adopt best practices. Finally, the HIT community should re-examine whether and how regulation of electronic health applications could foster improved care, public health, and patient safety.

Do local opinion leaders augment hospital quality improvement efforts? A randomized trial to promote adherence to unstable angina guidelines.

BACKGROUND: The influence of an opinion leader intervention on adherence to Unstable Angina (UA) guidelines compared with a traditional quality improvement model was investigated. RESEARCH DESIGN: A group-randomized controlled trial with 2210 patients from 21 hospitals was designed. There were three intervention arms: (1) no intervention (NI); (2) a traditional Health Care Quality Improvement Program (HCQIP); and (3) a physician opinion leader in addition to the HCQIP model (OL). Quality indicators included: electrocardiogram within 20 minutes, antiplatelet therapy within 24 hours and at discharge, and heparin and beta-blockers during hospitalization. Hospitals could determine the specific indicators they wished to target. Potential cases of UA were identified from Medicare claims data. UA confirmation was determined by a clinical algorithm based on data abstracted from medical records. Data analyses included both hospital level analysis (analysis of variance) and patient level analysis (generalized linear models). RESULTS: The only statistically significant postintervention difference in percentage compliant was greater improvement for the OL group in the use of antiplatelet therapy at 24 hours in both hospital level (P = 0.01) and patient level analyses (P <0.05) compared with the HCQIP and NI groups. When analyses were confined to hospitals that targeted specific indicators, compared with the HCQIP hospitals, the OL hospitals showed significantly greater change in percentage compliant postintervention in both antiplatelet therapy during the first 24 hours (20.2% vs. -3.9%, P = 0.02) and heparin (31.0% vs.9.1%, P = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The influence of physician opinion leaders was unequivocally positive for only one of five quality indicators. To maximize adherence to best practices through physician opinion leaders, more research on how these physicians influence health care delivery in their organizations will be required.

Patient perceptions of physician use of handheld computers.

BACKGROUND: Handheld computers have advantages for healthcare providers including portability and integration into office workflow. However, negative patient perceptions of physician use of handheld computers in the examining room might limit integration. OBJECTIVE: To survey patients' perceptions of handheld use, and compare those with their providers' perceptions. METHODS: A survey of patient attitudes toward handhelds was conducted among patients at a low-income university clinic. Internal Medicine residents providing care were also surveyed. RESULTS: Patients (N=93) were mostly female (79%) and ethnic minorities (67%) with average age of 39. Only 10% of patients did not like the idea of a handheld computer in the exam room. Other negative attitudes were also seen in a minority of patients. Some physicians (23%) reported reservations about using the handheld computer with patients. CONCLUSIONS: Negative attitudes were rare among patients, but some providers were concerned about using the handheld in the exam room.

Ethical and legal issues in the use of clinical decision support systems.

The clinician must be able to make informed decisions on when to seek out, follow, or ignore the clinical decision support system's advice. In addition, knowledge bases must be properly maintained, and vendors should inform the client about how the systems were developed and tested, the source of the rules in the system, expectations of the user, and type of user training required.