Quantitative assessment of spicule length in Heligmosomoides spp. (Nematoda, Heligmosomidae): distinction between H. bakeri, H. polygyrus and H. glareoli.

Nematode spicules play a vital role in the reproductive activity of species that possess them. Our primary objective was to compare the lengths of spicules of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) ­ maintained isolate H. bakeri ­ with those of H. polygyrus from naturally infected wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). On a more limited scale, we also included H. glareoli from bank voles (Myodes glareolus), a species reputed to possess longer spicules than either of the 2 former species. In total, we measured 1264 spicules (H. bakeri, n = 614; H. polygyrus n = 582; and H. glareoli, n = 68). There was a highly significant difference between the spicule lengths of the Nottingham-maintained H. bakeri (mean = 0.518 mm) and H. polygyrus (0.598 mm) from 11 different localities across the British Isles. A comparison of the spicules of H. bakeri maintained in 4 different laboratories in 3 continents revealed a range in the mean values from 0.518 to 0.540 mm, while those of worms from Australian wild house mice were shorter (0.480 mm). Mean values for H. polygyrus from wood mice from the British Isles ranged from 0.564 to 0.635 mm, although isolates of this species from Norway had longer spicules (0.670 mm). In agreement with the literature, the spicules of H. glareoli were considerably longer (1.098 mm). Since spicules play a vital role in the reproduction of nematode species that possess them, the difference in spicule lengths between H. bakeri and H. polygyrus adds to the growing evidence that these 2 are quite distinct species and likely reproductively isolated.

Implementing Health and Safety Policy Changes at the High School Level From a Leadership Perspective.

CONTEXT: Although consensus statements and recommendations from professional organizations aim to reduce the incidence of injury or sudden death in sport, nothing is mandated at the high school level. This allows states the freedom to create and implement individual policies. An example of a recommended policy is heat acclimatization. Despite its efficacy in reducing sudden death related to heat stroke, very few states follow the recommended guidelines. OBJECTIVE: To retroactively examine why and how 3 states were able to facilitate the successful creation and adoption of heat-acclimatization guidelines. DESIGN: Qualitative study. SETTING: High school athletic associations in Arkansas, Georgia, and New Jersey. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Eight men and 3 women (n = 11; 6 athletic trainers; 2 members of high school athletic associations; 2 parents; 1 physician) participated. Participant recruitment ceased when data saturation was reached. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: All phone interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. A grounded-theory approach guided analysis and multiple analysts and peer review were used to establish credibility. RESULTS: Each state had a different catalyst to change (student-athlete death, empirical data, proactivity). Recommendations from national governing bodies guided the policy creation. Once the decision to implement change was made, the states displayed 2 similarities: shared leadership and open communication between medical professionals and members of the high school athletic association helped overcome barriers. CONCLUSIONS: The initiating factor that spurred the change varied, yet shared leadership and communication fundamentally allowed for successful adoption of the policy. Our participants were influenced by the recommendations from national governing bodies, which align with the institutional change theory. As more states begin to examine and improve their health and safety policies, this information could serve as a valuable resource for athletic trainers in other states and for future health and safety initiatives.