Exploring the interplay between socioeconomic status and reading achievement: An expectancy-value perspective.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic status (SES) and motivation are both important predictors of student achievement. However, most studies have investigated these factors separately, and very few have looked into the interplay between SES and motivation as determinants of student reading achievement. AIMS: We intend to bridge this gap by examining a model of SES predicting reading achievement through motivation (i.e., expectancy and value) at both student and school levels. SAMPLE: We used the data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 of 26,281 students from four regions in Greater China (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taipei). METHODS: We used multi-group multilevel path analysis to test whether SES would predict reading achievement mediated by expectancy and value in student and school levels across four regions, with gender as a covariate. RESULTS: Results showed that at the student level, SES significantly predicted reading achievement indirectly through both expectancy and value across four regions. At the school level, the relationship between school SES and school reading achievement was mostly direct. CONCLUSION: The study was able to demonstrate the motivational gap as a pathway in which economic inequality can contribute to students' reading achievement gap.

Economic burden of smoking-attributable diseases in China: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: This review aims to synthesise the studies on smoking-attributable burden of diseases in China to assess the economic burden of smoking and highlight the weakness in these studies to inform future studies. METHODS: A systematic search of studies on smoking-attributable burden of disease in seven databases was conducted in 2019 and studies were screened according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. The evaluation of studies was based on the seven key elements for burden of disease studies. Costs were converted into 2013 Renminbi (RMB), with 1000 RMB about 163 US$ in 2013, the year of the first search, using the Consumer Price Index and the then exchange rate. RESULTS: Twenty studies were identified that estimated the costs of smoking in China, ranging from 57.162 to 368.273 billion RMB in total. The largest proportion of direct costs was allocated to outpatient visits, accounting for 49.17-68.94% of the direct costs. Meanwhile, costs resulting from mortality constituted 64.52-98.82% of the indirect costs. In mainland China, the understanding of PAR% (ratio of population attributable risk and incidence in the total population) in studies is not consistent. Studies on the cost of passive smoking are lacking and the research method for diseases needs to be improved. CONCLUSIONS: Smoking-attributable diseases have exerted substantial direct and indirect economic burden on China. The methodologies for future studies should be improved. Hong Kong and Taiwan provide good examples for future research in mainland China and researchers there should use PAR% correctly. More studies on the burden of passive smoking should be conducted. We propose a combination of single and all-disease research methods, if data are sufficient.

Health education for reducing tobacco consumption in Shanghai based on the health versus financial framing effect: A randomized field study.

INTRODUCTION: In China, the regular use of tobacco by much of the population has brought great losses in both health and economy. This study used the framing-effect theory to explore people's preferences regarding message-framing for education about financial and health-related gains associated with smoking cessation in different areas of Shanghai, China. In particular, it attempts first to identify any influencing factors and offers some suggestions to improve the efficiency of education efforts regarding tobacco control. METHODS: A message-framing field study was conducted in three districts in Shanghai that represent low-income, middle-income and high-income areas between June and August 2015, respectively. This study examines leaflets with a different message-framing (Health-Financial Framework) to ascertain the preferences of participants at the different locations. A total of 4650 participants were recruited and asked to complete a questionnaire. The z-test, chi-squared test and logistic regression analysis were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: In low-income areas, participants were more inclined towards financial rather than health message-framing, especially in financial and health oriented locations. In the middle-income areas, participants preferred health message-framing, especially at hospital locations. In the high-income areas, health message-framing was preferred in health and neutral locations in comparison with financial locations. The type of area, location and household monthly income have an impact on participants' preference for message-framing. CONCLUSIONS: Three suggestions are proposed for tobacco control health education in China: 1) Combine health education information design with the framing-effect theory to improve the effectiveness of information content, 2) Considering the impact of different types of area and location, different tobacco control health education strategies should be adopted to improve the efficiency of publicity, and 3) Targeted and personalized tobacco control health education strategies should be implemented among different audiences.