The evolution of urolithiasis assessment and management in the new millennium.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this review was to identify trends and developments in basic research, epidemiology, diagnosis, conservative and surgical management of urinary stone disease, and to demonstrate the evolution of urolithiasis management in the new millennium. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: We performed a literature search on Medline according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement up to December 2015 using the following key words: urolithiasis prevalence, recurrent urinary stone, metabolic syndrome and urolithiasis, urinary stone/urolithiasis metabolic evaluation, shockwave lithotripsy, ureterorenoscopy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy/nephrolitholapaxy. The key words were chosen following consensus as the single most appropriate and descriptive terms that would yield maximal relevant results in a single search for each section. We then segregated only relevant articles in the English language of the highest quality evidence (systematic review/meta-analysis, prospective cohorts and prospective randomized trials, levels of evidence: 1A and 1B, respectively) as well as experimental research. The initial relevance screening was based on title and abstract, whereas further filtering included full text screening. The evidence is subsequently presented and discussed on each relevant section, preceded by seminal references that are used as a basis for comparison to formulate our conclusions. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: By using the key word "urolithiasis prevalence" we identified initially 1581 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 154 articles were included for data extraction (9.77%). Of note, 31 articles focused on the pediatric population. By using the key words "metabolic syndrome and urolithiasis" we identified initially 127 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 23 articles were included for data extraction (18.11%). It must be noted that the majority of studies are reviews, experimental models and prospective cohorts. By using the key words "urolithiasis metabolic evaluation" we identified initially 262 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 179 articles were included for data extraction (68.32%). It must be noted that the majority of studies are reviews, experimental models and prospective cohorts. By using the key word "shockwave lithotripsy" we identified initially 695 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 90 articles were included for data extraction (12.94%). By using the key word "ureterorenoscopy" we identified initially 2609 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 186 articles were included for data extraction (7.12%). By using the key word "percutaneous nephrolithotomy" we identified initially 695 relevant articles. Following exclusion of duplicates and relevance screening, 381 articles were included for data extraction (10.42%). CONCLUSIONS: The management of urolithiasis has evolved greatly and in multiple directions in the past fifteen years. There is a definite compartmentalization of basic research, innovation and development focusing on distinct stages of the disease, from epidemiologic features to pathophysiology, medical and surgical aspects. Patients enjoy better delivery of care, having ever more effective options to deal with their condition. The multidisciplinary approach provides more reliable solutions and will continue to drive the development of better preventative and treatment strategies in the future.

Visually directed high-intensity focused ultrasound for organ-confined prostate cancer: A proposed standard for the conduct of therapy.

OBJECTIVE: To propose a standard for the conduct of visually directed transrectal high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) and to offer a formal description of the changes observed on B-mode ultrasonography (US) during this procedure. We describe our early experience of using two different treatment methods; algorithm-based HIFU and visually directed HIFU for the treatment of organ-confined prostate cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between November 2004 and October 2005, 34 men were treated using the Sonablate-500 (Focus Surgery, Indianapolis, IN, USA) as primary therapy for T1 or T2 prostate cancer. None had had previous hormone therapy and all had > or = 3-month PSA nadirs recorded at the follow-up. Nine men were treated using an algorithm-based protocol (group 1) and 25 using visually directed therapy (group 2). The conduct of visually directed treatment was described and changes seen using B-mode US were categorized using three 'Uchida' grades. RESULTS The mean PSA nadir achieved in group 2 was 0.15 ng/mL, vs 1.51 ng/mL in group 1 (P < 0.005). In group 2, 21 of 25 men achieved PSA nadirs of < or = 0.2 ng/mL 3 months after treatment. Seven men achieved undetectable PSA values. The occurrence rate of treatment-related toxicity was similar in both groups. CONCLUSION: Visually directed, transrectal HIFU enables clinically important and statistically significantly lower PSA nadirs to be achieved than algorithm-based HIFU. This is the first reported experience of visually directed HIFU for the treatment of organ-confined prostate cancer. We think that this is the first attempt to standardize the conduct of therapy; such standardization facilitates teaching it, and makes it possible to derive quality standards. The standardization of the conduct of therapy is a key step in the process of health technology assessment.