Seasonal variation in energy expenditure and body composition in captive White Storks (Ciconia ciconia).

North Western European populations of White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) appear to have been saved from extinction by settling, i.e. stopping migration. Settled storks exposed to winter conditions must cope with periods of potentially high energy demands that would otherwise be avoided by the migration process. Doubly labeled water (DLW) was therefore used to examine the seasonal variation (summer vs winter) in daily energy expenditure (DEE) and the body composition of adult and immature storks of both sexes. Male White Storks showed a higher DEE over the winter period than in summer compared with females; in particular, immature males exhibited greater energy expenditure in winter than adult males. Thus, the DEE did not significantly differ between summer and winter (except for immature males), reflecting an absence of thermoregulation cost in winter. For both age classes, total body mass increased in winter, which was mainly due to an increase in fat mass. Adult storks were 5% heavier than immature storks. The sexes differed in body mass, with males weighing significantly more than females by 11%. Mean LBM (lean body mass) was 8.5% higher in adults than in immatures, and was 11.5% higher in males compared with females. Between their first and second summers, immatures accumulated a lean body mass to finally reach the same values as adults, indicating a phase of muscle development. The mean fat mass of the storks did not differ between age classes or between sexes. Based on physiological parameters, this study shows that settled White Storks are able to cope with mild winter periods when they are artificially provided with food. In a view to preserve favourable habitats for this species, it is therefore necessary to decide on a plan of action for breeding areas.

Skinfold thickness versus isotope dilution for body fat assessment during simulated microgravity: results from three bed-rest campaigns in men and women with and without countermeasures.

Because body composition is altered during head-down bed rest (HDBR), body mass can not be used as an index of energy balance. Consequently diet allowances should not be based on body mass evolution but on fat mass changes. Though criticized, skinfold thickness (ST) is the costless, easiest and fastest method to use for such an objective. The aim of this study was to compare the percentage of body fat (%BF) estimated by ST with the isotope dilution of H2 18O. We compiled data from three HDBR campaigns, one on women (n=8) in November 1998 and two on the same men (n=8) in December 1997 (without countermeasure) and January 1998 (with thigh-cuffs countermeasure), according to a crossover design. Body composition was assessed before and after 6 days of HDBR. %BF was derived from the biceps, triceps, sub-scapular and sup-iliac ST according to Durnin and Wormersly (1974). Fat-free mass was measured on the same day by H2 18O dilution and fat mass was calculated by the difference with body mass and expressed as a percentage. Based on precision tests, the minimum measurable change by ST was 1.1%BF for single measurement point. Both intercepts (F (4,30)=0.89, P=0.45) and slopes (F (4,30)=0.74; P=0.57) of the ST versus dilution relationships were not affected by the periods (December vs January), experimental conditions (control vs HDBR vs HDBR + thigh cuffs) or sex allowing the derivation of a common relationship %BF(st)=0.94 x %BF(dil) (F (1,47)=97.9, P<0.0001; non-significant intercept excluded) with a bias between methods of -1.7+/-2.0 %BF (95% CI: -5.8, 2.4 %BF). ST can be used to measure %BF during HDBR provided great care is placed on training and changes are higher than 1.1 %BF. If the method can be applied for in-flight energy balance monitoring given the high observed energy deficit, a tight monitoring of the individual nutritional status as needed during simulation appears, however, dubious based on this solely method.