Social determinants and causes of child mortality in Pakistan: Analysis of national demographic health surveys from 1990 to 2013.

AIM: The aim of the study was to define social determinants, causes and trends in child mortality from 1990 to 2013 in Pakistan. Understanding social determinants, causes and temporal trends in child mortality can inform strategies aimed at improving child health in low and middle income countries. METHODS: We characterised temporal trends and social determinants of child mortality in Pakistan using national demographic health survey data (1990-1991, 2006-2007 and 2012-2013). We analysed national data to generate regional estimates of health programme effectiveness. RESULTS: The annual rates of reduction for child mortality between 1990 and 2013 were estimated as follows: neonatal (-0.33% per annum), post-neonatal (3.13% per annum), infant (0.9% per annum), child (2.47% per annum) and under 5 (1.19% per annum). Bivariate analyses of 2013 data showed that living in Punjab or Balochistan province, belonging to lowest wealth quintile, lack of maternal education, previous birth interval < 2 years, first birth order and below average birth size were associated (p < 0.05) with greater risk of child mortality in Pakistan. Common factors associated with child mortality were fever, diarrhoea and pneumonia, while among stillbirths, intrapartum asphyxia, unexplained antepartum and antepartum maternal disorders were most frequent. CONCLUSION: Child survival strategies should integrate leading biosocial indicators and causes of death. Further research is needed to define the role(s) of social factors in child health and survival. These data should inform the implementation of cost-effective interventions for child survival and advance targeting of interventions to populations at increased risk of child mortality.

Radon-contaminated drinking water from private wells: an environmental health assessment examining a rural Colorado mountain community's exposure.

In the study discussed in this article, 27 private drinking water wells located in a rural Colorado mountain community were sampled for radon contamination and compared against (a) the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA's) proposed maximum contaminant level (MCL), (b) the U.S. EPA proposed alternate maximum contaminate level (AMCL), and (c) the average radon level measured in the local municipal drinking water system. The data from the authors' study found that 100% of the wells within the study population had radon levels in excess of the U.S. EPA MCL, 37% were in excess of the U.S. EPA AMCL, and 100% of wells had radon levels greater than that found in the local municipal drinking water system. Radon contamination in one well was found to be 715 times greater than the U.S. EPA MCL, 54 times greater than the U.S. EPA AMLC, and 36,983 times greater than that found in the local municipal drinking water system. According to the research data and the reviewed literature, the results indicate that this population has a unique and elevated contamination profile and suggest that radon-contaminated drinking water from private wells can present a significant public health concern.

The promise and pitfalls of mass drug administration to control intestinal helminth infections.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Intestinal helminth infections continue to cause significant morbidity in resource-limited settings. Recent efforts at global control have centered on mass drug administration (MDA) of praziquantel and benzimidazole anthelminthics to reduce the prevalence and intensity of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted nematode infections, respectively. This review summarizes progress and potential challenges associated with MDA. RECENT FINDINGS: Data from studies conducted in endemic areas show that chemotherapeutic interventions can reduce prevalence and intensity of infection with intestinal helminths, and have the potential to reduce transmission within populations. However, consistent benefits in high-risk groups, including children and pregnant women, have not been established. The long-term benefits of MDA remain to be determined, and the potential for emerging resistance to impact effectiveness have not yet been defined. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas studies evaluating MDA have shown benefit in certain populations, intensive monitoring and evaluation, as well as a commitment of resources for new drug development, are essential for long-term control or elimination of intestinal helminth infections.

Epidemiology and management of infectious diseases in international adoptees.

International adoptees represent a group of children with unique health care needs. Data from published studies, along with the recent experience of the Yale International Adoption Clinic, suggest that the risk of serious infections in adoptees is low, although infections associated with institutionalization still occur commonly. Interpretation of these data must be undertaken with caution, however, since many, if not most, international adoptees are not evaluated in specialty clinics. Thus, prospective studies designed to minimize selection and referral bias are needed in order to accurately define the risk of infectious and noninfectious diseases in all international adoptees.