Estimating The Impact Of Out-Of-Pocket Cost Changes On Abandonment Of HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis.

Oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is highly effective for preventing HIV. Several different developments in the US either threaten to increase or promise to decrease PrEP out-of-pocket costs and access in the coming years. In a sample of 58,529 people with a new insurer-approved PrEP prescription, we estimated risk-adjusted percentages of patients who abandoned (did not fill) their initial prescription across six out-of-pocket cost categories. We then simulated the percentage of patients who would abandon PrEP under hypothetical changes to out-of-pocket costs, ranging from $0 to more than $500. PrEP abandonment rates of 5.5 percent at $0 rose to 42.6 percent at more than $500; even a small increase from $0 to $10 doubled the rate of abandonment. Conversely, abandonment rates that were 48.0 percent with out-of-pocket costs of more than $500 dropped to 7.3 percent when those costs were cut to $0. HIV diagnoses were two to three times higher among patients who abandoned PrEP prescriptions than among those who filled them. These results imply that recent legal challenges to the provision of PrEP with no cost sharing could substantially increase PrEP abandonment and HIV rates, upending progress on the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Geographic variations of pre-exposure prophylaxis reversal and abandonment among United States counties.

OBJECTIVE: In the United States, one in five newly insurer-approved pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) prescriptions are reversed with over 70% of those reversed, being abandoned. Given the Ending the HIV Epidemic (EHE) initiative's goals, we assessed geographic variations of PrEP reversal and abandonment across EHE and non-EHE counties in the United States. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional analysis of secondary data. METHODS: Data were collected from Symphony Analytics for adults 18 years and older, with a newly prescribed PrEP claim. Using the proportion of PrEP prescriptions by county, hotspot analysis was conducted utilizing Getis Ord Gi∗ statistics stratified by EHE and non EHE counties. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with residing in hotspots of PrEP reversal or PrEP abandonments. RESULTS: Across 516 counties representing 36,204 patients, the overall PrEP reversal rate was 19.4%, whereas the PrEP abandonment rate was 13.7%. Reversals and abandonments were higher for non-EHE (22.7 and 17.1%) than EHE (15.6 and 10.5%) counties. In both EHE and non-EHE counties, younger age, less education, females, and an out-of-pocket cost of greater than $100, were significantly associated with greater likelihood of residing in hotspots of PrEP reversal or abandonment, while Hispanics, Medicaid recipients, and an out-of-pocket cost of $10 or less had lower likelihood of residing in hotspots of reversal and abandonment. CONCLUSION: Findings indicate the need for implementation of focused interventions to address disparities observed in PrEP reversal and abandonment. Moreover, to improve primary PrEP adherence, national PrEP access programs should streamline and improve PrEP accessibility across different geographic jurisdictions.

Prevalence and Management of Sexually Transmitted Infections in Correctional Settings: A Systematic Review.

Admissions to jails and prisons in the United States number 10 million yearly; persons entering locked correctional facilities have high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). These individuals come disproportionately from communities of color, with lower access to care and prevention, compared with the United States as a whole. Following PRISMA guidelines, the authors present results of a systematic review of literature published since 2012 on STIs in US jails, prisons, Immigration and Customs Enforcement detention centers, and juvenile facilities. This updates an earlier review of STIs in short-term facilities. This current review contributed to new recommendations in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2021 treatment guidelines for STIs, advising screening for Trichomonas in women entering correctional facilities. The current review also synthesizes recommendations on screening: in particular, opt-out testing is superior to opt-in protocols. Carceral interventions-managing diagnosed cases and preventing new infections from occurring (eg, by initiating human immunodeficiency virus preexposure prophylaxis before release)-can counteract structural racism in healthcare.

Characterizing Financial Sustainability of Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinics Through Insurance Billing Practices.

CONTEXT: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) continue to increase in the United States. Publicly funded sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics provide important safety net services for communities at greater risk for STIs. However, creating financially sustainable models of STI care remains a challenge. OBJECTIVE: Characterization of clinic insurance billing practices and patient willingness to use insurance. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey assessment of clinic administrators and patients. SETTING: Twenty-six STD clinics and 4138 patients attending these clinics in high STD morbidity metropolitan statistical areas in the United States. PARTICIPANTS: Clinic administrators and patients of these clinics. INTERVENTION: Survey assessment. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Insurance billing practices of STD clinics and patient insurance status and willingness to use their insurance. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of clinics (4/26) indicated that they billed only Medicaid, 58% (15/26) billed both Medicaid and private insurance, 27% (7/26) did not bill for any health insurance, and none (0%) billed only private health insurance companies. Of 4138 patients surveyed, just more than one-half of patients (52.6%) were covered by some form of health insurance. More than one-half (57.2%) of all patients covered by health insurance indicated that they would be willing to use their health insurance for that visit. After adjusting for patient demographics and clinic characteristics, the patients covered by government insurance were 3 times as likely (odds ratio: 3.16; 95% confidence interval, 2.44-4.10) than patients covered by private insurance to be willing to use their insurance for their visit. CONCLUSION: Opportunities exist for sustainable STI services through the enhancement of billing practices in STD clinics. The STD clinics provide care to large numbers of individuals who are both insured and who are willing to use their insurance for their care. As Medicaid expansion continues across the country, efforts focused on improving reimbursement rates for Medicaid may improve financial sustainability of STD clinics.

"PrEP's just to secure you like insurance": a qualitative study on HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) adherence and retention among black cisgender women in Mississippi.

BACKGROUND: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) has the potential to reduce transmission of HIV among Black cisgender women in the Southern United States (U.S.); however, national data suggests that PrEP initiation is lowest in the South and among Black women compared to other U.S. regions and white women. This study applied intersectionality and PrEP multilevel resilience frameworks to assess how socio-structural and clinical contexts shaped PrEP persistence among Black cisgender women in Mississippi. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Black cisgender women in Jackson, Mississippi. This sample was purposively recruited to include PrEP-initiated Black cisgender women. RESULTS: Six themes identified that shaped PrEP care among Black cisgender women: (1) internal assets, (2) sole responsibility to HIV prevention, (3) added protection in HIV serodifferent relationships, (4) financial issues, (5) trust and distrust in the medical system, and (6) side effects. Black cisgender women reported that PrEP persistence increased control over their sexual health, reduced anxiety about HIV, and promoted self-care. Black cisgender women also indicated that medication assistance programs increased PrEP affordability resulting in continued persistence. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to preventing HIV, PrEP may yield secondary positive impacts on the health and relationships of Black cisgender women. However, very few Black cisgender women in the South are using PrEP given intersectional barriers and thus necessitates adaptive strategies to support PrEP initiation and persistence. Efforts aimed at increasing the coverage of PrEP among Black cisgender women should consider implementation strategies responsive to lived realities of Black women.

Persistently high SARS-CoV-2 positivity rate and incidence for Hispanic/Latinos during state reopening in an urban setting: a retrospective cohort study.

Hispanic/Latino populations are disproportionately impacted by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United States. The impact of state reopening on COVID-19 in this population after stay-at-home orders is unknown. We evaluated the incidence, prevalence and trends during reopening of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) at a major federally qualified health centre in Providence, Rhode Island. A total of 14 505 patients were tested for SARS-CoV-2 from 19 March to 18 August 2020, of which, data on 13 318 (91.8%) patients were available; 70.0% were Hispanic/Latino, and 2905 were positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection. The urban Hispanic/Latino population was almost five times more likely to test positive for SARS-CoV-2 (risk ratio 4.97, 95% CI 2.59-9.53, P < 0.001) compared to non-Hispanic White. The positivity rates among the urban Hispanic/Latino population remained >10% during all phases of reopening. The trends of the incidence rates showed similar associations to those we observed for positivity rates. Public health interventions to address SARS-CoV-2 in Hispanic/Latino communities are urgently needed, even in latter phases of state reopening.

Evaluating statewide HIV preexposure prophylaxis implementation using All-Payer Claims Data.

PURPOSE: Preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in the form of daily emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (FTC/TDF) is effective for preventing HIV infection. Implementation has been limited by an inability to systematically evaluate uptake and use. All-Payer Claims Databases (APCDs) provide an opportunity to evaluate population-level PrEP implementation. METHODS: We used 2012-2017 data from Rhode Island's APCD and developed an algorithm to identify individuals prescribed FTC/TDF for PrEP. We describe PrEP implementation by patient demographics and provider type and mapped PrEP implementation across ZIP codes. We compared APCD data to electronic medical record data and comprehensive pharmaceutical claims data (AIDSVu.org). RESULTS: The Rhode Island APCD represented approximately 87% of the state's population. PrEP use increased 31-fold from 2012 to 2017. Users were predominantly privately insured, male, and concentrated in Providence County (76.6%). Infectious diseases providers had 3.2 times the odds of being a PrEP prescriber compared to primary care providers. Compared to other pharmaceutical and electronic medical record data, the APCD underestimated the number of PrEP users in Rhode Island but improved in capturing users over time. CONCLUSIONS: APCDs are a useful data source for characterizing PrEP use across a state. There is a need to increase PrEP prescribing among primary care providers, especially in areas with underserved populations.

Potential Impact of Targeted HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Uptake Among Male Sex Workers.

Little is known about the potential population-level impact of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use among cisgender male sex workers (MSWs), a high-risk subset of cisgender men who have sex with men (MSM). Using an agent-based model, we simulated HIV transmission among cisgender MSM in Rhode Island to determine the impacts of PrEP implementation where cisgender MSWs were equally ("standard expansion") or five times as likely ("focused expansion") to initiate PrEP compared to other cisgender MSM. Without PrEP, the model predicted 920 new HIV infections over a decade, or an average incidence of 0.39 per 100 person-years. In a focused expansion scenario where 15% of at-risk cisgender MSM used PrEP, the total number of new HIV infections was reduced by 58.1% at a cost of $57,180 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained. Focused expansion of PrEP use among cisgender MSWs may be an efficient and cost-effective strategy for reducing HIV incidence in the broader population of cisgender MSM.

Sexual Orientation and Suicide Attempt Disparities Among US Adolescents: 2009-2017.

BACKGROUND: Sexual minority adolescents face mental health disparities relative to heterosexual adolescents. We evaluated temporal changes in US adolescent reported sexual orientation and suicide attempts by sexual orientation. METHODS: We used Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance data from 6 states that collected data on sexual orientation identity and 4 states that collected data on sex of sexual contacts continuously between 2009 and 2017. We estimated odds ratios using logistic regression models to evaluate changes in reported sexual orientation identity, sex of consensual sexual contacts, and suicide attempts over time and calculated marginal effects (MEs). RESULTS: The proportion of adolescents reporting minority sexual orientation identity nearly doubled, from 7.3% in 2009 to 14.3% in 2017 (ME: 0.8 percentage points [pp] per year; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.6 to 0.9 pp). The proportion of adolescents reporting any same-sex sexual contact increased by 70%, from 7.7% in 2009 to 13.1% in 2017 (ME: 0.6 pp per year; 95% CI: 0.4 to 0.8 pp). Although suicide attempts declined among students identifying as sexual minorities (ME: -0.8 pp per year; 95% CI: -1.4 to -0.2 pp), these students remained >3 times more likely to attempt suicide relative to heterosexual students in 2017. Sexual minority adolescents accounted for an increasing proportion of all adolescent suicide attempts. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of adolescents reporting sexual minority identity and same-sex sexual contacts increased between 2009 and 2017. Disparities in suicide attempts persist. Developing and implementing approaches to reducing sexual minority youth suicide is critically important.

Cost-Effectiveness of a Statewide Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Program for Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men.

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is an effective tool for preventing HIV infection among men who have sex with men (MSM), but its cost-effectiveness has varied across settings. Using an agent-based model, we projected the cost-effectiveness of a statewide PrEP program for MSM in Rhode Island over the next decade. In the absence of PrEP, the model predicted an average of 830 new HIV infections over ten years. Scaling up the existing PrEP program to cover 15% of MSM with ten or more partners each year could reduce the number of new HIV infections by 33.1% at a cost of $184,234 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained. Expanded PrEP use among MSM at high risk for HIV infection has the potential to prevent a large number of new HIV infections but the high drug-related costs may limit the cost-effectiveness of this intervention.

Insurance Status and Access to Sexual Health Services Among At-Risk Men: A Qualitative Study.

Our objective was to evaluate the impact of insurance coverage on access to sexual health services among at-risk men. Data were collected from Hispanic/Latino and non-Hispanic White male patients at a publicly funded sexually transmitted disease clinic in a Medicaid expansion state from February to July 2017, using in-depth, semistructured interviews. A coding scheme was applied to interview transcripts with iterative revisions until a final coding scheme was achieved. Data were analyzed using Nvivo 10 software. Three key themes emerged from qualitative analysis: Most participants reported (a) financial barriers, (b) fluctuations in insurance status and challenges with insurance re-enrollment, and (c) lack of access to a provider and discomfort discussing sexual health as barriers to accessing HIV/sexually transmitted disease care in primary care settings. Hispanic/Latino men more frequently cited these barriers compared with non-Hispanic White men. Insurance status and out-of-pocket costs are barriers to sexual health care for at-risk men.

Changes in Patient Visits After the Implementation of Insurance Billing at a Sexually Transmitted Diseases Clinic in a Medicaid Expansion State.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid expansion has led to unique opportunities for sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics to improve the sustainability of services by billing insurance. We evaluated changes in patient visits after the implementation of insurance billing at a STD clinic in a Medicaid expansion state. METHODS: The Rhode Island STD Clinic offered HIV/STD screening services at no cost to patients until October 2016, when insurance billing was implemented. Care for uninsured patients was still provided for free. We compared the clinic visits in the preinsurance period with the postinsurance period using t-tests, Poisson regressions, and a logistic regression. RESULTS: A total of 5560 patients were seen during the preinsurance (n = 2555) and postinsurance (n = 3005) periods. Compared with the preinsurance period, the postinsurance period had a significantly higher average number of patient visits/month (212.9 vs. 250.4, P = 0.0016), including among patients who were black (36.8 vs. 50.3, P = 0.0029), Hispanic/Latino (50.8 vs. 65.8, P = 0.0018), and insured (106.3 vs. 130.1, P = 0.0025). The growth rate of uninsured (+0.10 vs. +4.11, P = 0.0026) and new patients (-4.28 vs. +1.07, P = 0.0007) also increased between the two periods. New patients whose first visit was before the billing change had greater odds (adjusted odds ratio, 2.68, 95% confidence interval, 2.09-3.44; P < 0.0001) of returning compared with new patients whose first visit was after the billing change. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of insurance billing at a publicly funded STD clinic, with free services provided to uninsured individuals, was associated with a modest increase in patient visits and a decline in patients returning for second visits.

A Nearly 50% Decrease in New HIV Diagnoses in Rhode Island from 2006-2016: Implications for Policy Development and Prevention.

In the last decade, reductions in HIV incidence have been observed across the United States. However, HIV continues to disproportionately impact gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM). In Rhode Island, rates of HIV diagnoses have decreased by 44% across all groups over the last decade. This success has been the result of close collaboration across multiple sectors. Different prevention approaches, including syringe exchange programs, community-based HIV testing, condom distribution, HIV care and treatment, and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) have all contributed to the decline in HIV diagnoses across the state. In 2015, Rhode Island became one of the first states to sign on to the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS "90-90-90" campaign to end the HIV epidemic by 2030. Intensified and innovative initiatives are needed to improve progress in HIV prevention and treatment, especially in populations who are most at risk.

The Affordability of Providing Sexually Transmitted Disease Services at a Safety-net Clinic.

INTRODUCTION: Sexually transmitted diseases continue to increase in the U.S. There is a growing need for financially viable models to ensure the longevity of safety-net sexually transmitted disease clinics, which provide testing and treatment to high-risk populations. This micro-costing analysis estimated the number of visits required to balance cost and revenue of a sexually transmitted disease clinic in a Medicaid expansion state. METHODS: In 2017, actual and projected cost and revenues were estimated from the Rhode Island sexually transmitted disease clinic in 2015. Projected revenues for a hypothetical clinic offering a standard set of sexually transmitted disease services were based on Medicaid; private ("commercial") insurance; and institutional ("list price") reimbursement rates. The number of visits needed to cover clinic costs at each rate was assessed. RESULTS: Total operating cost for 2,153 clinic visits was estimated at $255,769, or $119 per visit. Laboratory testing and salaries each accounted for 44% of operating costs, medications for treatment 7%, supplies 5%, and 28% of visits used insurance. For a standard clinic offering a basic set of sexually transmitted disease services to break even, a projected 73% of visits need to be covered at the Medicaid rate, 38% at private rate, or 11% at institutional rate. CONCLUSIONS: Sexually transmitted disease clinics may be financially viable when a majority of visits are billed at a Medicaid rate; however, mixed private/public models may be needed if not all visits are billed. In this manner, sexually transmitted disease clinics can be solvent even if not all visits are billed to insurance, thus ensuring access to uninsured or underinsured patients.