Income Inequality and Self-Reported Health Among Older Adults in Brazil.

This study analyzes the association between income inequality and self-reported health (SRH) in older adults, and separately for the young-old and very-old groups, residing in each of the 27 Brazilian capitals. The sample consisted of 4,912 individuals aged 60 or older residing in Brazilian capitals in 2013. Bayesian multilevel models were applied to the whole sample and separately for individuals aged 60 to 79 (young-old), and 80 or more (very-old). Our results show significant associations between income inequality and SRH, even after controlling for individual and contextual factors. We found greater odds of poor SRH among older adults living in areas with medium (odds ratio [OR] = 1.66, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.49-1.86) and high-income inequality (OR = 2.21, 95% CI: 2.05-2.38). The negative association between income inequality and health, independently of the individual and contextual characteristics, suggests that living in unequal areas can have a detrimental effect on the health of older adults.

Basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals: a multilevel analysis. / Saneamento básico e saúde autoavaliada nas capitais brasileiras: uma análise multinível.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyze the association between the contextual determinants related to basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals. METHODS: The sample consisted of 27,017 adults (≥18 years) residing in the 27 Brazilian capitals in 2013, from the National Health Survey (PNS). The association between self-reported health and sanitation (sewage system, water supply and garbage collection) was analyzed using Bayesian multilevel models, controlling for individual factors (first level of the model) and area-level socioeconomic characteristics (second level). RESULTS: We found a consistent association between better self-reported health and better sanitation levels, even after controlling for individual and contextual characteristics. At the contextual level, lower odds of poor self-reported health was observed among those living in areas with medium (OR = 0.59, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.61) or high (OR = 0.61, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.66) sewage system level; medium (OR = 0.77, 95%CI 0.71 - 0.83) coverage of water supply; and high (OR = 0.78, 95%CI 0.69 - 0.89) garbage collection level. CONCLUSION: The positive association between better sanitation conditions and health, independently of the individual factors and the socioeconomic characteristics of the place of residence, confirms the need to consider sanitation in the planning of health policies.

OBJETIVO: Analisar a associação entre os determinantes contextuais referentes ao saneamento básico e a autoavaliação de saúde nas capitais brasileiras. MÉTODOS: Analisaram-se 27.017 adultos (≥ 18 anos) residentes nas 27 capitais brasileiras em 2013, utilizando dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Ajustaram-se modelos multiníveis logísticos bayesianos para analisar a associação entre a autoavaliação de saúde e a cobertura dos serviços de saneamento básico (rede de esgoto, abastecimento de água e coleta de lixo), controlando a análise por fatores individuais (primeiro nível do modelo) e renda per capita da cidade de residência (segundo nível). RESULTADOS: A maior cobertura de serviços de saneamento básico esteve consistentemente associada à melhor percepção da saúde, mesmo após o controle pelas características individuais e contextuais. Observou-se menor chance de autoavaliação ruim de saúde entre indivíduos que viviam em capitais com média (odds ratio - OR = 0,59; intervalo de confiança - IC95% = 0,57 - 0,61) e alta (OR = 0,61; IC95% = 0,57 - 0,66) cobertura da rede de coleta de esgoto; média (OR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,71 - 0,83) cobertura de serviço de abastecimento de água; e alta (OR = 0,78; IC95% = 0,69 - 0,89) proporção de coleta de lixo. CONCLUSÃO: A associação positiva entre melhores condições de saneamento básico e a autoavaliação da saúde, independentemente dos fatores individuais e das condições socioeconômicas do local de residência, confirma a necessidade de se considerar o saneamento básico na elaboração de políticas de saúde.

Saneamento básico e saúde autoavaliada nas capitais brasileiras: uma análise multinível / Basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals: a multilevel analysis

RESUMO: Objetivo: Analisar a associação entre os determinantes contextuais referentes ao saneamento básico e a autoavaliação de saúde nas capitais brasileiras. Métodos: Analisaram-se 27.017 adultos (≥ 18 anos) residentes nas 27 capitais brasileiras em 2013, utilizando dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Ajustaram-se modelos multiníveis logísticos bayesianos para analisar a associação entre a autoavaliação de saúde e a cobertura dos serviços de saneamento básico (rede de esgoto, abastecimento de água e coleta de lixo), controlando a análise por fatores individuais (primeiro nível do modelo) e renda per capita da cidade de residência (segundo nível). Resultados: A maior cobertura de serviços de saneamento básico esteve consistentemente associada à melhor percepção da saúde, mesmo após o controle pelas características individuais e contextuais. Observou-se menor chance de autoavaliação ruim de saúde entre indivíduos que viviam em capitais com média (odds ratio - OR = 0,59; intervalo de confiança - IC95% = 0,57 - 0,61) e alta (OR = 0,61; IC95% = 0,57 - 0,66) cobertura da rede de coleta de esgoto; média (OR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,71 - 0,83) cobertura de serviço de abastecimento de água; e alta (OR = 0,78; IC95% = 0,69 - 0,89) proporção de coleta de lixo. Conclusão: A associação positiva entre melhores condições de saneamento básico e a autoavaliação da saúde, independentemente dos fatores individuais e das condições socioeconômicas do local de residência, confirma a necessidade de se considerar o saneamento básico na elaboração de políticas de saúde.

ABSTRACT: Objective: This study aimed to analyze the association between the contextual determinants related to basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals. Methods: The sample consisted of 27,017 adults (≥18 years) residing in the 27 Brazilian capitals in 2013, from the National Health Survey (PNS). The association between self-reported health and sanitation (sewage system, water supply and garbage collection) was analyzed using Bayesian multilevel models, controlling for individual factors (first level of the model) and area-level socioeconomic characteristics (second level). Results: We found a consistent association between better self-reported health and better sanitation levels, even after controlling for individual and contextual characteristics. At the contextual level, lower odds of poor self-reported health was observed among those living in areas with medium (OR = 0.59, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.61) or high (OR = 0.61, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.66) sewage system level; medium (OR = 0.77, 95%CI 0.71 - 0.83) coverage of water supply; and high (OR = 0.78, 95%CI 0.69 - 0.89) garbage collection level. Conclusion: The positive association between better sanitation conditions and health, independently of the individual factors and the socioeconomic characteristics of the place of residence, confirms the need to consider sanitation in the planning of health policies.

Social inequalities in the self-rated health of the elderly people in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. / Desigualdades sociais na autoavaliação de saúde dos idosos da cidade de São Paulo.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of the self-rated poor and very poor health status among elderly people who were not in nursing homes and were living in São Paulo, Brazil, in 2010, and to identify whether the social inequalities previously reported for this condition persist. METHODS: We carried out a cross-sectional study, with a representative sample of 1,344 people aged 60 years or more living in the city, who participated in the SABE Study (Health, Well-Being, and Aging). We applied a questionnaire about sociodemographic characteristics, which included three questions on self-rated health status: a direct question about the current condition, a comparison with the condition of the other people of the same age, and a comparison with oneself a year before. The comparative analysis used Poisson regression models, reporting the prevalence ratio as a measure of association between variables. RESULTS: Only 7.8% of the elderly individuals reported a negative self-rated health status in 2010, similar proportion to those that consider themselves to be in worse health condition than the other people of the same age (8.7%). However, the prevalence of elderly people that reported worsening in comparison with the previous year was higher, of 29.2%. Regardless of the question used, the prevalence of negative self-rated health was directly associated with worse indicators of income, educational status, and consumer classes. Significant differences between genders, age groups, and skin color categories were also observed. CONCLUSION: Differences in the prevalence of self-rated negative health status continue to affect the sociodemographic groups. The knowledge already available about social inequalities in health did not eliminate or attenuate social injustice in this outcome.

OBJETIVO: Descrever a prevalência da autoavaliação de saúde ruim e muito ruim em idosos não asilados vivendo na cidade de São Paulo em 2010 e identificar se persistem as desigualdades sociais anteriormente relatadas para esta condição. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado um estudo transversal, com amostra representativa de 1.344 pessoas com 60 anos ou mais vivendo na cidade, participantes do Estudo SABE (Saúde, Bem-Estar e Envelhecimento). Foi aplicado questionário sobre características sociodemográficas, incluindo três questões de autoavaliação de saúde: uma pergunta direta sobre a condição atual, uma comparação com a condição das demais pessoas da mesma idade, e uma comparação consigo mesmo há um ano. A análise comparativa utilizou modelos de regressão de Poisson, relatando a razão de prevalências como medida de associação entre variáveis. RESULTADOS: Apenas 7,8% dos idosos relataram autoavaliação negativa de saúde em 2010, proporção análoga à dos que se consideraram em pior condição de saúde que as demais pessoas de mesma idade (8,7%). No entanto, foi mais elevada a prevalência de idosos que relataram piora em relação ao ano anterior: 29,2%. Independentemente da questão utilizada, a prevalência de autoavaliação negativa de saúde associou-se diretamente com piores indicadores de renda, escolaridade e classes de consumo. Também foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os sexos, grupos etários e categorias de cor da pele. CONCLUSÃO: Diferenças na prevalência de autoavaliação negativa de saúde persistem afetando os grupos sociodemográficos. O conhecimento já disponível sobre desigualdades sociais de saúde não propiciou suprimir ou atenuar a injustiça social neste desfecho.

The relationship between neighborhood-level socioeconomic characteristics and individual mental disorders in five cities in Latin America: multilevel models from the World Mental Health Surveys.

PURPOSE: Our understanding of community-level predictors of individual mental disorders in large urban areas of lower income countries is limited. In particular, the proportion of migrant, unemployed, and poorly educated residents in neighborhoods of these urban areas may characterize group contexts and shape residents' health. METHODS: Cross-sectional household interviews of 7251 adults were completed across 83 neighborhoods of Buenos Aires, Argentina; Medellín, Colombia; São Paulo, Brazil; Lima, Peru; and Mexico City, Mexico as part of the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Past-year internalizing and externalizing mental disorders were assessed, and multilevel models were used. RESULTS: Living in neighborhoods with either an above-average or below-average proportion of migrants and highly educated residents was associated with lower odds of any internalizing disorder (for proportion migrants: OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.62-0.91 for the bottom tertile and OR 0.79, 95% CI 0.67-0.94 for the top tertile compared to the middle tertile; for proportion highly educated: OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.64-0.90 for the bottom tertile and OR 0.58, 95% CI 0.37-0.90 for the top tertile compared to the middle tertile). Living in neighborhoods with an above-average proportion of unemployed individuals was associated with higher odds of having any internalizing disorder (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.14-1.95 for the top tertile compared to the middle tertile). The proportion of highly educated residents was associated with lower odds of externalizing disorder (OR 0.54, 95% CI 0.31-0.93 for the top tertile compared to the middle tertile). CONCLUSIONS: The associations of neighborhood-level migration, unemployment, and education with individual-level odds of mental disorders highlight the importance of community context for understanding the burden of mental disorders among residents of rapidly urbanizing global settings.

Overachieving Municipalities in Public Health: A Machine-learning Approach.

BACKGROUND: Identifying successful public health ideas and practices is a difficult challenge towing to the presence of complex baseline characteristics that can affect health outcomes. We propose the use of machine learning algorithms to predict life expectancy at birth, and then compare health-related characteristics of the under- and overachievers (i.e., municipalities that have a worse and better outcome than predicted, respectively). METHODS: Our outcome was life expectancy at birth for Brazilian municipalities, and we used as predictors 60 local characteristics that are not directly controlled by public health officials (e.g., socioeconomic factors). RESULTS: The highest predictive performance was achieved by an ensemble of machine learning algorithms (cross-validated mean squared error of 0.168), including a 35% gain in comparison with standard decision trees. Overachievers presented better results regarding primary health care, such as higher coverage of the massive multidisciplinary program Family Health Strategy. On the other hand, underachievers performed more cesarean deliveries and mammographies and had more life-support health equipment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that analyzing the predicted value of a health outcome may bring insights about good public health practices.

Individual and Neighborhood Factors Associated With Functional Mobility and Falls in Elderly Residents of São Paulo, Brazil: A Multilevel Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify socioeconomic and contextual factors associated with functional mobility and falls in elderly residents of São Paulo, Brazil. METHOD: We used data from the Health, Well-Being, and Aging ( Saúde, Bem-estare Envelhecimento [SABE]) Study. The dependent variables were falling in the last year and functional mobility impairment. Individual (marital status, race, education, and perception of income sufficiency) and contextual (green area and violence) factors were analyzed by multilevel logistic models. RESULTS: Having 8 or more years of schooling was a protective factor for mobility impairment. Neighborhoods with moderate homicide rate were associated with higher odds of falling. Moderate green spaces were associated with higher odds of falling and lower odds to have mobility impairment for individuals 80 years and older. DISCUSSION: Our findings support the concern that neighborhood characteristics are associated with falls and mobility impairment. Strategies to prevent these outcomes should consider contextual aspects.

Desigualdades sociais na autoavaliação de saúde dos idosos da cidade de São Paulo / Social inequalities in the self-rated health of the elderly people in the city of São Paulo, Brazil

RESUMO: Objetivo: Descrever a prevalência da autoavaliação de saúde ruim e muito ruim em idosos não asilados vivendo na cidade de São Paulo em 2010 e identificar se persistem as desigualdades sociais anteriormente relatadas para esta condição. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo transversal, com amostra representativa de 1.344 pessoas com 60 anos ou mais vivendo na cidade, participantes do Estudo SABE (Saúde, Bem-Estar e Envelhecimento). Foi aplicado questionário sobre características sociodemográficas, incluindo três questões de autoavaliação de saúde: uma pergunta direta sobre a condição atual, uma comparação com a condição das demais pessoas da mesma idade, e uma comparação consigo mesmo há um ano. A análise comparativa utilizou modelos de regressão de Poisson, relatando a razão de prevalências como medida de associação entre variáveis. Resultados: Apenas 7,8% dos idosos relataram autoavaliação negativa de saúde em 2010, proporção análoga à dos que se consideraram em pior condição de saúde que as demais pessoas de mesma idade (8,7%). No entanto, foi mais elevada a prevalência de idosos que relataram piora em relação ao ano anterior: 29,2%. Independentemente da questão utilizada, a prevalência de autoavaliação negativa de saúde associou-se diretamente com piores indicadores de renda, escolaridade e classes de consumo. Também foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os sexos, grupos etários e categorias de cor da pele. Conclusão: Diferenças na prevalência de autoavaliação negativa de saúde persistem afetando os grupos sociodemográficos. O conhecimento já disponível sobre desigualdades sociais de saúde não propiciou suprimir ou atenuar a injustiça social neste desfecho.

ABSTRACT: Objective: To describe the prevalence of the self-rated poor and very poor health status among elderly people who were not in nursing homes and were living in São Paulo, Brazil, in 2010, and to identify whether the social inequalities previously reported for this condition persist. Methods: We carried out a cross-sectional study, with a representative sample of 1,344 people aged 60 years or more living in the city, who participated in the SABE Study (Health, Well-Being, and Aging). We applied a questionnaire about sociodemographic characteristics, which included three questions on self-rated health status: a direct question about the current condition, a comparison with the condition of the other people of the same age, and a comparison with oneself a year before. The comparative analysis used Poisson regression models, reporting the prevalence ratio as a measure of association between variables. Results: Only 7.8% of the elderly individuals reported a negative self-rated health status in 2010, similar proportion to those that consider themselves to be in worse health condition than the other people of the same age (8.7%). However, the prevalence of elderly people that reported worsening in comparison with the previous year was higher, of 29.2%. Regardless of the question used, the prevalence of negative self-rated health was directly associated with worse indicators of income, educational status, and consumer classes. Significant differences between genders, age groups, and skin color categories were also observed. Conclusion: Differences in the prevalence of self-rated negative health status continue to affect the sociodemographic groups. The knowledge already available about social inequalities in health did not eliminate or attenuate social injustice in this outcome.

Individual and contextual characteristics of indoor and outdoor falls in older residents of São Paulo, Brazil.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: To analyze a representative sample of older individuals of São Paulo, Brazil, according to outdoor fallers, indoor fallers and non-fallers, and to identify biological and socioeconomic (individual and contextual) factors associated with the occurrence and place of falls. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted using data (n = 1345) from the 2010 wave of the Health, Wellbeing and Aging (SABE) Study, a representative sample of older residents (60 years and older) of São Paulo, Brazil. Multinomial logistic analysis was performed to identify individual factors associated with the occurrence and place of falls, and multilevel multinomial analysis to identify contextual effects (green areas, violence, presence of slums and income inequality). RESULTS: 29% had a fall in the last 12 months, with 59% occurring in indoor spaces. Individuals who had outdoor falls were overall not statistically different from non-fallers; on the other hand, those who had the last fall indoor had worse health status. Moderate homicide rate was a factor associated with increased presence of indoor falls, compared with non-fallers. IMPLICATIONS: Our results describe the importance of falls, a common problem in active and community-dwelling older adults of São Paulo, Brazil. Transforming outdoor spaces into walk-friendly areas is essential to allow socialization and autonomy with safety. Creating strategies that take into account the most vulnerable populations, as those who live in violent areas and the oldest older adults, will be a growing challenge among developing countries.

Tendência temporal da falta de acesso aos serviços de saúde no Brasil, 1998-2013 / Tendencia temporal de la falta de acceso a los servicios de salud en Brasil, 1998-2013 / Time trend of lack of access to health services in Brazil, 1998-2013

OBJETIVO: analisar a tendência temporal da procura e da falta de acesso aos serviços de saúde no Brasil. MÉTODOS: trata-se de um painel de estudos transversais com dados das Pesquisas Nacionais por Amostra de Domicílios (1998, 2003, 2008) e da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (2013) que estimou a prevalência da demanda e da falta de acesso nos quinze dias anteriores à entrevista; empregou-se regressão de Poisson para análise da tendência. RESULTADOS: a procura por serviços aumentou, de 13,0% (IC95% 12,3;13,7) em 1998 para 15,0% (IC95% 14,5;15,4) em 2013; a falta de acesso foi estável, equivalente a 3,7% (IC95% 3,2;4,2) em 1998 e 4,5% (IC95% 4,0;5,0) em 2013. CONCLUSÃO: o aumento na procura e a estabilidade na falta de acesso indicam avanços no desempenho do sistema público de saúde; esforços adicionais são necessários para garantir o acesso universal aos serviços de saúde no Brasil.

OBJETIVO: evaluar la tendencia en el tiempo de la demanda y falta de acceso a servicios de salud en Brasil. MÉTODOS: se utilizaron cuatro estudios de base nacional (1998, 2003, 2008 y 2013) incluyendo, en total, más de un millón de participantes; la demanda y la falta de acceso durante los quince días anteriores de la entrevista fueron estimados. RESULTADOS: la demanda de servicios aumentó de 13%, en 1998, para 15%, en 2013; la falta de acceso fue inferior al 5% y estable en el período; no obstante, un número considerable de ciudadanos brasileños tuvieron falta de acceso (uno de cada 20 brasileños que demandan los servicios, en 2013). CONCLUSIONES: elaumento de la demanda y la falta de acceso estable indican mejoras en el desempeño del sistema de salud brasileño; se requieren esfuerzos adicionales para garantizar el acceso universal a los servicios de salud en Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: to analyze the time trend on the demand and lack of access to public health services in Brazil. METHODS: this is a panel of cross-sectional studies with data of the National Household Sample Survey (1998, 2003, 2008) and the National Health Survey (2013); the prevalence of demand and lack of access within the fifteen days prior to the survey was estimated; Poisson regression was used for trend analysis. RESULTS: the demand for health services increased from 13.0% (95%CI 12.3;13.7), in 1998, to 15.0% (95%CI 14.5;15.4), in 2013; the lack of access remained stable, being of 3.7% (95%CI 3.2;4.2) in 1998 and 4.5% (95%CI 4.0;5.0) in 2013. CONCLUSIONS: the increase in demand for health services and the stability in the lack of access indicate improvements in the Brazilian public health system performance; additional efforts are required to ensure universal access to public health services in Brazil.

Incremental health expenditure and lost days of normal activity for individuals with mental disorders: results from the São Paulo Megacity Study.

BACKGROUND: With the recent increase in the prevalence of mental disorders in developing countries, there is a growing interest in the study of its consequences. We examined the association of depression, anxiety and any mental disorders with incremental health expenditure, i.e. the linear increase in health expenditure associated with mental disorders, and lost days of normal activity. METHODS: We analyzed the results from a representative sample survey of residents of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (n = 2,920; São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey), part of the World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative, coordinated by the World Health Organization and performed in 28 countries. The instrument used for obtaining the individual results, including the assessment of mental disorders, was the WMH version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0 (WMH-CIDI 3.0) that generates psychiatric diagnoses according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria. Statistical analyses were performed by multilevel generalized least squares (GLS) regression models. Sociodemographic determinants such as income, age, education and marital status were included as controls. RESULTS: Depression, anxiety and any mental disorders were consistently associated with both incremental health expenditure and missing days of normal activity. Depression was associated with an incremental annual expenditure of R$308.28 (95% CI: R$194.05-R$422.50), or US$252.48 in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). Anxiety and any mental disorders were associated with a lower, but also statistically significant, incremental annual expenditure (R$177.82, 95% CI: 79.68-275.97; and R$180.52, 95% CI: 91.13-269.92, or US$145.64 and US$147.85 in terms of PPP, respectively). Most of the incremental health costs associated with mental disorders came from medications. Depression was independently associated with higher incremental health expenditure than the two most prevalent chronic diseases found by the study (hypertension and diabetes). CONCLUSIONS: The fact that individuals with mental disorders had a consistent higher health expenditure is notable given the fact that Brazil has a universal free-of-charge healthcare and medication system. The results highlight the growing importance of mental disorders as a public health issue for developing countries.

Determinants of the use of health care services: multilevel analysis in the Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the individual and contextual determinants of the use of health care services in the metropolitan region of Sao Paulo. METHODS Data from the Sao Paulo Megacity study - the Brazilian version of the World Mental Health Survey multicenter study - were used. A total of 3,588 adults living in 69 neighborhoods in the metropolitan region of Sao Paulo, SP, Southeastern Brazil, including 38 municipalities and 31 neighboring districts, were selected using multistratified sampling of the non-institutionalized population. Multilevel Bayesian logistic models were adjusted to identify the individual and contextual determinants of the use of health care services in the past 12 months and presence of a regular physician for routine care. RESULTS The contextual characteristics of the place of residence (income inequality, violence, and median income) showed no significant correlation (p > 0.05) with the use of health care services or with the presence of a regular physician for routine care. The only exception was the negative correlation between living in areas with high income inequality and presence of a regular physician (OR: 0.77; 95%CI 0.60;0.99) after controlling for individual characteristics. The study revealed a strong and consistent correlation between individual characteristics (mainly education and possession of health insurance), use of health care services, and presence of a regular physician. Presence of chronic and mental illnesses was strongly correlated with the use of health care services in the past year (regardless of the individual characteristics) but not with the presence of a regular physician. CONCLUSIONS Individual characteristics including higher education and possession of health insurance were important determinants of the use of health care services in the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo. A better understanding of these determinants is essential for the development of public policies that promote equitable use of health care services.

Determinants of the use of health care services: multilevel analysis in the Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo / Determinantes do uso de serviços de saúde: análise multinível da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the individual and contextual determinants of the use of health care services in the metropolitan region of Sao Paulo. METHODS Data from the Sao Paulo Megacity study – the Brazilian version of the World Mental Health Survey multicenter study – were used. A total of 3,588 adults living in 69 neighborhoods in the metropolitan region of Sao Paulo, SP, Southeastern Brazil, including 38 municipalities and 31 neighboring districts, were selected using multistratified sampling of the non-institutionalized population. Multilevel Bayesian logistic models were adjusted to identify the individual and contextual determinants of the use of health care services in the past 12 months and presence of a regular physician for routine care. RESULTS The contextual characteristics of the place of residence (income inequality, violence, and median income) showed no significant correlation (p > 0.05) with the use of health care services or with the presence of a regular physician for routine care. The only exception was the negative correlation between living in areas with high income inequality and presence of a regular physician (OR: 0.77; 95%CI 0.60;0.99) after controlling for individual characteristics. The study revealed a strong and consistent correlation between individual characteristics (mainly education and possession of health insurance), use of health care services, and presence of a regular physician. Presence of chronic and mental illnesses was strongly correlated with the use of health care services in the past year (regardless of the individual characteristics) but not with the presence of a regular physician. CONCLUSIONS Individual characteristics including higher education and possession of health insurance were important determinants of the use of health care services in the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo. A better understanding of these determinants is essential for the development of public policies ...

OBJETIVO Analisar os determinantes individuais e contextuais do uso de serviços de saúde na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. MÉTODOS Foram utilizados os dados do estudo São Paulo Megacity, a versão brasileira da pesquisa multicêntrica World Mental Health Survey. Foram analisados 3.588 indivíduos adultos residentes em 69 áreas da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, SP (38 municípios adjacentes e 31 subprefeituras do município de São Paulo), selecionados por meio de amostragem multiestratificada da população não institucionalizada. Foram ajustados modelos multinível logísticos Bayesianos para identificar os determinantes individuais e contextuais do uso de serviços de saúde nos últimos 12 meses e a presença de médico de referência para cuidados de rotina. RESULTADOS As características contextuais do local de residência (desigualdade de renda, violência e renda mediana) não apresentaram associação significativa (p > 0,05) com o uso de serviços ou com a presença de médico de referência para cuidados de rotina. A única exceção foi a associação negativa entre residir em uma área com alta desigualdade de renda e a presença de médico de referência (OR 0,77; IC95% 0,60;0,99) após controle das características individuais. O estudo apontou uma forte e consistente associação entre algumas características individuais (principalmente escolaridade e presença de plano de saúde) com o uso de serviços de saúde e ter médico de referência. A presença de doenças crônicas e mentais associou-se fortemente com o uso de serviços no último ano (independentemente de características individuais), mas não com a presença de médico de referência. CONCLUSÕES Características individuais como maior escolaridade e ter plano de saúde foram determinantes importantes do uso de serviços de saúde na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. A melhor compreensão desses determinantes é necessária para o desenvolvimento de políticas públicas que permitam o uso equitativo dos serviços ...

Racial disparities in life expectancy in Brazil: challenges from a multiracial society.

OBJECTIVES: We calculated life expectancy at birth for Whites, Blacks, and mixed races in Brazil, and decomposed the differences by causes of death. METHODS: We used Ministry of Health death records and 2010 Census population data (190,755,799 residents and 1,136,947 deaths). We applied the Arriaga methodology to calculate decomposition of life expectancy by cause of death. We performed sensitivity analyses for underreporting of deaths, missing data, and numerator-denominator bias. RESULTS: Using standard life table methods, female life expectancy was highest for mixed races (78.80 years), followed by Whites (77.54 years), then Blacks (76.32 years). Male life expectancy was highest for Whites (71.10 years) followed closely by mixed races (71.08 years), and lower for Blacks (70.11 years). Homicides contributed the most to the relative life expectancy increase for Whites, and cancer decreased the gap. After adjustment for underreporting, missing data, and numerator-denominator bias, life expectancy was higher for Whites than for Blacks and mixed races. CONCLUSIONS: Despite wide socioeconomic differences between Whites and mixed races, standard life table methods showed that mixed races had higher life expectancy than Whites for women, and similar for men. With the increase of multiracial populations, measuring racial disparities in life expectancy will be a fast-growing challenge.

Como incluir características dos distritos do município de São Paulo em estudos epidemiológicos?: análise da desigualdade de renda pelo uso do propensity score matching / How to include the characteristics of the distritos of the Municipality of São Paulo in epidemiologic studies?: an income inequality analysis using the propensity score matching approach

OBJETIVO: o padrão espacial de distribuição de renda do município de São Paulo, frequentemente generalizado como sendo "radial", tem sido muito questionado pela literatura recente. São Paulo tem uma complexa distribuição de características sociais e demográficas entre seus distritos, o que dificulta a análise por meio de modelos estatísticos que permitam a inclusão somente de algumas variáveis de cada vez, como as regressões lineares. O presente estudo objetiva identificar os distritos do município que possam ser considerados como "comparáveis" pelo uso da metodologia estatística conhecida como propensity score matching. METODOLOGIA: os 96 distritos do município de São Paulo foram analisados separadamente; foram incluídas 16 variáveis no modelo, sendo o índice de Gini a variável que permitiu a separação de distritos entre expostos (alta desigualdade) ou não expostos (baixa desigualdade). Do total de distritos, 27 foram considerados comparáveis com algum outro, isto é, possuíram valores de propensity score com uma distância menor de 0,1 de outro com tipo de exposição diferente. RESULTADOS: das 16 variáveis incluídas, 9 apresentaram diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre os distritos incluídos e excluídos, o que é esperado pela metodologia. Dos 17 pares de distritos formados, apenas 3 foram compostos por distritos de uma mesma região administrativa e apenas 1 por distritos que faziam fronteira entre si. CONCLUSÃO: a análise da diferença no padrão de distribuição das variáveis, permitida pelo uso do propensity score matching, indica a dificuldade de dividir a cidade segundo regiões. Para entender São Paulo é preciso considerar suas particularidades e suas complexas distribuições espaciais.

OBJECTIVES: The spatial pattern of income distribution in the Municipality of São Paulo, considered to be of a "radial" type, has been challenged by recent studies due to the complex distribution of social and demographic characteristics between its distritos. This demands an in-depth analysis that takes into consideration a multitude of variables in order to control for local heterogeneity. This study aims to identify the distritos of São Paulo that can be defined as "comparable" to another one, by using a statistical methodology known as propensity score matching.METHODOLOGY:The 96 distritos of the Municipality of São Paulo were analyzed separately. 16 variables were included in the model, and the Gini coefficient was used to define "exposure" (high inequality) and "non-exposure" (low inequality). Of the distritos, 27 were considered "comparable".RESULTS: Of the 16 variables inserted in the model, nine presented a statistically significant difference between included and excluded distritos, which is expected by this methodology. Of the 17 pairs of distritos considered to be comparable, only three were composed of distritos situated in the same administrative region, and only one was composed of bordering distritos.CONCLUSION: The complex spatial distribution of the propensity score in the Municipality of São Paulo indicates that it is very difficult to divide the city according to its geographical regions. In order to understand how the distritos of São Paulo affect the health of its residents, it is important to take into consideration its many particularities and how they are spatially distributed.

[Racial/ethnic disparities in self-rated health: a multilevel analysis of 2,697 individuals in 145 Brazilian municipalities]. / Disparidades étnico-raciais em saúde autoavaliada: análise multinível de 2.697 indivíduos residentes em 145 municípios brasileiros.

Recent literature reviews have shown that studies analyzing racial/ethnic disparities in Brazil are still scarce. Multilevel approaches are necessary, since race is a socially constructed concept and can vary by area of residence. The analysis included 2,697 individuals from 145 Brazilian municipalities (counties), classified by race (white, black, or mixed). Multilevel models were fitted using Bayesian inference with Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods. After including demographic, socioeconomic, and health access variables, black and mixed-race individuals showed higher odds of negative self-rated health (OR = 1.71; 95%CI: 1.24; 2.37 and OR = 1.37; 95%CI: 1.10; 1.71, respectively). Characteristics of the area of residence did not significantly affect the association between race and self-rated health. Racial/ethnic disparities lost their statistical significance after re-categorization of the dependent variable. The results indicate that racial/ ethnic disparities in health in Brazil may be deeper and more complex than expected.

Does income inequality get under the skin? A multilevel analysis of depression, anxiety and mental disorders in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: Test the original income inequality theory, by analysing its association with depression, anxiety and any mental disorders. METHODS: We analysed a sample of 3542 individuals aged 18 years and older selected through a stratified, multistage area probability sample of households from the São Paulo Metropolitan Area. Mental disorder symptoms were assessed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria. Bayesian multilevel logistic models were performed. RESULTS: Living in areas with medium and high-income inequality was statistically associated with increased risk of depression, relative to low-inequality areas (OR 1.76; 95% CI 1.21 to 2.55, and 1.53; 95% CI 1.07 to 2.19, respectively). The same was not true for anxiety (OR 1.25; 95% CI 0.90 to 1.73, and OR 1.07; 95% CI 0.79 to 1.46). In the case of any mental disorder, results were mixed. CONCLUSIONS: In general, our findings were consistent with the income inequality theory, that is, people living in places with higher income inequality had an overall higher odd of mental disorders, albeit not always statistically significant. The fact that depression, but not anxiety, was statistically significant could indicate a pathway by which inequality influences health.

Disparidades étnico-raciais em saúde autoavaliada: análise multinível de 2.697 indivíduos residentes em 145 municípios brasileiros / Racial/ethnic disparities in self-rated health: a multilevel analysis of 2,697 individuals in 145 Brazilian municipalities / Disparidades etno-raciales en la autopercepción de salud: un análisis multinivel de 2.697 personas que viven en 145 municipios brasileños

Revisões recentes da literatura indicam que o número de estudos sobre disparidades étnicoraciais no Brasil é escasso. A análise multinível torna-se necessária já que o conceito de raça/cor é socialmente construído e pode variar segundo local de residência. Foram analisados 2.697 indivíduos residentes em 145 municípios brasileiros, segundo raça (branca, preta e parda). Foram ajustados modelos multinível utilizando inferência bayesiana pelo método Monte Carlo via Cadeias de Markov. Após a inclusão de variáveis demográficas, socioeconômicas e de acesso a serviços de saúde, indivíduos de raça preta e parda tiveram maior razão de chances de avaliarem sua saúde como negativa (RC = 1,71; IC95%: 1,24; 2,37 e RC = 1,37; IC95%: 1,10; 1,71, respectivamente). Características do local de residência não alteraram significativamente a relação entre raça/cor e saúde autoavaliada. Após a recategorização da variável dependente, as características étnico-raciais perderam significância estatística. O presente estudo indica que as disparidades raciais em saúde podem ser mais complexas do que o esperado.

Recent literature reviews have shown that studies analyzing racial/ethnic disparities in Brazil are still scarce. Multilevel approaches are necessary, since race is a socially constructed concept and can vary by area of residence. The analysis included 2,697 individuals from 145 Brazilian municipalities (counties), classified by race (white, black, or mixed). Multilevel models were fitted using Bayesian inference with Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods. After including demographic, socioeconomic, and health access variables, black and mixed-race individuals showed higher odds of negative self-rated health (OR = 1.71; 95%CI: 1.24; 2.37 and OR = 1.37; 95%CI: 1.10; 1.71, respectively). Characteristics of the area of residence did not significantly affect the association between race and self-rated health. Racial/ethnic disparities lost their statistical significance after re-categorization of the dependent variable. The results indicate that racial/ ethnic disparities in health in Brazil may be deeper and more complex than expected.

Las revisiones bibliográficas recientes muestran que los estudios que analizan las disparidades etno-raciales en Brasil siguen siendo escasos. Es necesario un enfoque multinivel, debido a que el concepto de raza es una construcción social, y es susceptible de variar según la zona de residencia. El presente análisis incluyó a 2.697 personas de 145 municipios brasileños, separados por raza (blanco, negro y mestizos). Se ajustaron modelos multinivel, usando la inferencia bayesiana con métodos Markov Chain Monte Carlo. Después de incluir las variables demográficas, socioeconómicas y de acceso a la salud como controles, las personas identificadas como negros y mestizos tuvieron un odds ratio más elevado al juzgar su salud en términos negativos (OR = 1,71; IC95%: 1,24; 2,37 y OR = 1,37; 95%CI: 1,10; 1,71, respectivamente). Después de la recategorización de la variable dependiente, las disparidades etno-raciales perdieron significación estadística. Los resultados indican que las disparidades etno-raciales en salud en Brasil pueden ser más complejas y profundas de lo esperado.

[Disaggregation of differences in life expectancy between the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo, Brazil]. / Decomposição da diferença da expectativa de vida de Minas Gerais em relação ao Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo, Brasil.

Comparisons between States of Brazil are still rare in public health. The States of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro have adequate mortality registry coverage and are geographically similar, thus making comparison appropriate for identifying possible interventions in public health. Meanwhile, the three States show important socioeconomic differences, consistently worse for Minas Gerais. The study analyzed the disaggregation of differences in life expectancy in Minas Gerais as compared to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro for 1996, 2000, and 2010, using the Arriaga methodology. Minas Gerais had a higher life expectancy than the two other States for the entire period, in both men and women. Advanced age and chronic illness, especially cancer and ischemic heart disease, were the most important factors in this difference. Differences in lifestyle and physical exercise (better for Minas Gerais than for São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro) could help explain the apparent inconsistency between socioeconomic indicators and life expectancy.

Decomposição da diferença da expectativa de vida de Minas Gerais em relação ao Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo, Brasil / Disaggregation of differences in life expectancy between the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo, Brazil / Análisis sobre la diferencia de expectativa de vida de Minas Gerais, en relación con Río de Janeiro y São Paulo, Brasil

Ao contrário de outros países, comparações entre regiões brasileiras ainda são pouco realizadas. Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo têm boa cobertura do registro de óbitos e semelhanças geográficas, o que permite identificar oportunidades de intervenção em saúde. Por outro lado, existem importantes diferenças socioeconômicas, consistentemente piores em Minas Gerais. Foi realizada uma decomposição da diferença da expectativa de vida de Minas Gerais em relação ao Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo para 1996, 2000 e 2010, utilizando a metodologia de Arriaga. Minas Gerais apresentou maior expectativa de vida em relação aos outros dois estados durante todo o período, tanto para homens quanto para mulheres. O grupo etário dos idosos e as doenças crônicas foram as mais importantes para explicar essa diferença, especialmente neoplasias e doenças isquêmicas do coração. Diferenças no estilo de vida e prática de atividade física (melhores em Minas Gerais do que em relação ao Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo) podem ajudar a explicar a inconsistência entre os níveis socioeconômicos e a situação de saúde.

Comparisons between States of Brazil are still rare in public health. The States of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro have adequate mortality registry coverage and are geographically similar, thus making comparison appropriate for identifying possible interventions in public health. Meanwhile, the three States show important socioeconomic differences, consistently worse for Minas Gerais. The study analyzed the disaggregation of differences in life expectancy in Minas Gerais as compared to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro for 1996, 2000, and 2010, using the Arriaga methodology. Minas Gerais had a higher life expectancy than the two other States for the entire period, in both men and women. Advanced age and chronic illness, especially cancer and ischemic heart disease, were the most important factors in this difference. Differences in lifestyle and physical exercise (better for Minas Gerais than for São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro) could help explain the apparent inconsistency between socioeconomic indicators and life expectancy.

Al contrario que en otros países, todavía se realizan pocas comparaciones entre las diferentes regiones brasileñas. Minas Gerais, Río de Janeiro y São Paulo tienen una buena cobertura del registro de óbitos y semejanzas geográficas, lo que permite identificar oportunidades de intervención en salud. Por otro lado, existen importantes diferencias socioeconómicas, perceptiblemente peores en Minas Gerais. Se realizó un análisis sobre la diferencia de expectativa de vida de Minas Gerais, en relación con Río de Janeiro y São Paulo durante los años 1996, 2000 y 2010, utilizando la metodología de Arriaga. Minas Gerais presentó una mayor expectativa de vida en relación a los otros dos estados durante todo el período, tanto para hombres, como para mujeres. El grupo etario de los ancianos y las enfermedades crónicas fueron los más importantes para explicar esa diferencia, principalmente neoplasias y enfermedades isquémicas del corazón. Diferencias en el estilo de vida y práctica de actividad física (mejores en Minas Gerais en comparación con Río de Janeiro y São Paulo) pueden ayudar a explicar la inconsistencia entre los niveles socioeconómicos y la situación de salud.