Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost.

Human behavior emerges from planning over elaborate decompositions of tasks into goals, subgoals, and low-level actions. How are these decompositions created and used? Here, we propose and evaluate a normative framework for task decomposition based on the simple idea that people decompose tasks to reduce the overall cost of planning while maintaining task performance. Analyzing 11,117 distinct graph-structured planning tasks, we find that our framework justifies several existing heuristics for task decomposition and makes predictions that can be distinguished from two alternative normative accounts. We report a behavioral study of task decomposition (N = 806) that uses 30 randomly sampled graphs, a larger and more diverse set than that of any previous behavioral study on this topic. We find that human responses are more consistent with our framework for task decomposition than alternative normative accounts and are most consistent with a heuristic-betweenness centrality-that is justified by our approach. Taken together, our results suggest the computational cost of planning is a key principle guiding the intelligent structuring of goal-directed behavior.

Hospitalization costs due to severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) in three Central American countries / Costos de hospitalización de infección respiratoria aguda grave (IRAG) en tres países de América Central

Objective: To estimate the direct medical costs of severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) in children and adults from three Central American countries with a bottom-up costing approach. Methods: The costs of inpatients treatment were estimated through the retrospective bottom-up costing in a randomized sample of clinical records from SARI patients treated in teaching tertiary hospitals during 2009 - 2011 period. Activities incurred per patient were registered and a setting-specific cost per activity was acquired. Average cost per patient in the group of children and elderly adults was estimated for each country. In Nicaragua, only the pediatric population was included. Costs were expressed in local currency (2011), American dollars, and international dollars (2005) for country comparison. Results: The care cost per case in children in Guatemala was the cheaper (I$971.95) compared to Nicaragua (I$1,431.96) and Honduras (I$1,761.29). In adults, the treatment cost for Guatemala was the more expensive: I$4,065.00 vs. I$2,707.91 in Honduras. Conclusion: Bottom-up costing of SARI cases allowed the mean estimates per treated case that could have external validity for the target population diagnosed in hospitals with similar epidemiological profiles and level of complexity for the study countries. This information is very relevant for the decision-making.

Objetivo: Estimar los costos directos de la atención de infección respiratoria aguda (IRAG) en niños y adultos en tres países de América Central. Métodos: Los costos de pacientes hospitalizados fueron estimados a través de análisis retrospectivo en una muestra aleatoria de registros de historias clínicas de casos de IRAG tratado en hospitales universitarios durante el periodo 2009-2011. Las actividades incurridas por paciente fueron registradas y un costo especifico para cada sitio fue estimado. El costo por cada niño y adulto mayor fue estimado para cada país. En Nicaragua sólo se incluyó población pediátrica. Los costos fueron expresados en moneda local (2011), dolar americano y dolar internacional (2005). Resultados: El costo por caso en niños en Guatemala fue el más barato (I$971.95) comparado al de Nicaragua (I$1,431.96) y Honduras (I$1,761.29). En adultos, el costo de tratamiento para Guatemala fue el más costoso: I$4,065.00 vs. I$2,707.91 en Honduras. Conclusión: Los costos de tratar casos IRAG estimados a partir de costos promedios pro caso pueden tener validez externa para hospitales con perfiles epidemiologicos similares y nivel de complejidad de atención para los países del estudio. Esta información es muy relevante para la toma de decisiones.

Implementation of Real-Time Assessment of Patient-Reported Outcomes in a Heart Failure Clinic: A Feasibility Study.

BACKGROUND: Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) quantify, from patients' perspectives, their symptoms, function, and quality of life. Our aim was to determine the feasibility of integrating PRO capture into routine clinical practice at a large heart failure (HF) clinic. METHODS: We examined the practicality of PRO completion at the time of clinic visit, the time required to complete the selected instruments, the completion rate, and the feasibility of immediate PRO scoring and integration of the results into the electronic health record (EHR). We deployed a computer program to capture PROs (Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System) on a portable computer platform at the time of a clinic visit. An automated algorithm identified patients scheduled for appointments at the HF clinic at registration, provided a portable tablet computer with which to complete the appropriate PRO instruments and then scored and immediately integrated the results in the patient's EHR. RESULTS: In a 12-month period, 862 unique patients completed 1,320 PRO assessments. The mean age of this cohort was 60.1 ± 16.3 years and 66% were male. The average time for PRO assessment was 6.7 minutes and the completion rate among eligible patients was 58%, with 91% of started assessments completed in full. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary data support the feasibility of serial PRO assessment with real-time integration into the EHR in a large outpatient population of patients with HF. We identified critical steps that should enhance adoption of this approach by clinicians and render PRO results meaningful and actionable in routine clinical care.

Costos de tratamiento hospitalario de la infección respiratoria aguda grave en niños de Nicaragua / Cost of treatment for severe acute respiratory infection in Nicaraguan children

Objetivo: Estimar los costos de tratamiento hospitalario de la infección respiratoria aguda grave (IRAG) en niños en Nicaragua. Métodos: Se estimaron costos de tratamiento de pacientes hospitalizados a partir del microcosteo retrospectivo de una muestra aleatoria de casos ocurridos durante el periodo 2009-2011 en Nicaragua y atendidos en un hospital pediátrico universitario de alta complejidad. Se calculó una muestra aleatoria de pacientes con diagnósticos de IRAG (CIE-10), según parámetros extraídos de la literatura. En esta, se estimó el costo promedio por paciente. Los costos fueron expresados en moneda local de 2011 y dólares americanos. Resultados: El costo promedio total de atención de caso en niños fue de 314,9 US$ (intervalo de confianza [IC] 95%: 280,1-349,7 US$) y de 971,6 (655,5-1.287,8 US$) para los que requirieron UCI. El 41% de los costos en los que solo requieren hospitalización general se explican por gastos de hotelería, mientras que en los que requieren UCI el 52% es por medicamentos. Conclusión: El microcosteo de los casos incluidos de IRAG permitió estimar un valor medio por caso tratado, con sus respectivos IC y estos podrían tener validez para el total de la población atendida por estos diagnósticos en hospitales con similar perfil epidemiológico y similar nivel de complejidad en Nicaragua.

Objective: To estimate the costs of treatment for severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) in children in Nicaragua. Methods: A cost assessment was carried out on a random sample of inpatients during 2009-2011 who were treated in one pediatric universitary hospital in Nicaragua. A random sample of patients diagnosed with SARI (ICD-10) was calculated based on parameters from the literature. The average cost per patient was estimated. Costs were expressed in local currency and US dollar values in 2011. Results: The total average cost of healthcare per case was US$314.9 (confidence interval [CI]95%: 280.10-US$349.70) and US$971.60 (655.50-US$1287.80) for those requiring intensive care unit (ICU). Around 41% of the general hospitalization costs are due to the cost of the hospitalization while for those costs involving ICU care, 52% are due to drugs costs. Conclusion: We estimated an average cost per case expressed with their respective CI by microcosts analysis for SARI health care in Nicaraguan children. These costs may be representative of the population with this diagnosis in Nicaraguan hospitals with similar epidemiological profile.

Acesso aos serviços básicos de saúde e fatores associados: estudo de base populacional / Access to basic health services and associated factors: a population-based study

Este trabalho teve como objetivo identificar os fatores que intervêm no acesso aos serviços de uma unidade básica de saúde. Este é um estudo transversal, de base populacional, que envolveu 101 famílias residentes na área de abrangência da unidade de saúde selecionadas aleatoriamente. Um morador maior de idade de cada residência foi entrevistado. A variável resposta foi o morador ir ou não à unidade de saúde no caso dele, ou de alguém de sua família, precisar de atendimento para resolver um problema de saúde. As variáveis independentes investigadas foram aspectos da oferta de serviços; características demográficas e socioeconômicas; costumes individuais; morbidades e uso da unidade de saúde. Além da análise descritiva e univariada, a regressão logística foi aplicada na análise multivariada. Os resultados mostram que o acesso à unidade básica de saúde está associado com o atendimento recebido anteriormente (OR = 3.224), com a naturalidade (OR = 0.146) e a microárea de residência (OR = 10.918). Esses achados sugerem que o acesso está relacionado com o imaginário criado sobre o atendimento da unidade de saúde e se baseia nas experiências vivenciadas com o serviço, mas pode também ser fortemente modulado por aspectos individuais e fatores ligados ao território.

This study sought to identify factors involved in access to the services of a basic health unit. It is a cross-sectional, population-based study involving 101 randomly-selected families residing in the area covered by the health unit. An adult resident of each household was interviewed. The response variable was whether or not the resident frequented the health unit if he/she or anyone in the family required assistance to resolve a health issue. The independent variables investigated were service provision aspects, demographic and socio-economic characteristics, individual habits, morbidities and use of the health unit. In addition to descriptive and univariate analysis, logistic regression was applied in the multivariate analysis. The results show that access to the basic health unit is associated with the treatment received previously (OR = 3,224) with accessibility (OR = 0,146) and micro-area of residence (OR = 10,918). These findings suggest that access is related to the impressions created by the care received at the health unit and is based on experiences with the service, but can also be strongly modulated by individual aspects and factors related to the territory.

[Access to basic health services and associated factors: a population-based study]. / Acesso aos serviços básicos de saúde e fatores associados: estudo de base populacional.

This study sought to identify factors involved in access to the services of a basic health unit. It is a cross-sectional, population-based study involving 101 randomly-selected families residing in the area covered by the health unit. An adult resident of each household was interviewed. The response variable was whether or not the resident frequented the health unit if he/she or anyone in the family required assistance to resolve a health issue. The independent variables investigated were service provision aspects, demographic and socio-economic characteristics, individual habits, morbidities and use of the health unit. In addition to descriptive and univariate analysis, logistic regression was applied in the multivariate analysis. The results show that access to the basic health unit is associated with the treatment received previously (OR = 3,224) with accessibility (OR = 0,146) and micro-area of residence (OR = 10,918). These findings suggest that access is related to the impressions created by the care received at the health unit and is based on experiences with the service, but can also be strongly modulated by individual aspects and factors related to the territory.

Saúde bucal do adolescente: necessidades odontológicas levantadas pelos agentes comunitários de saúde / Adolescent oral health: odontological needs raised by community health agents

Objetivo: Apresentar dados epidemiológicos relativos à saúde bucal de adolescentes, obtidos com a utilização do Indicador Comunitário em Saúde Bucal (ICSB) e levantados pelos Agentes Comunitários de Saúde (ACS) em um município do Estado do Ceará, Brasil. Métodos: Estudo transversal, realizado em Guaiúba-CE, Brasil, entre julho/2007 e fevereiro/2008. Agentes comunitários de saúde (ACS) utilizaram ICSB para coletar dados. O ICSB averigua capacidade mastigatória (número de dentes); necessidade de tratamento curativo (dentes com cárie e raiz residual); presença de agravos aos tecidos moles; e uso e necessidade de prótese dentária. Este possibilita a priorização do atendimento de pacientes com maiores necessidades, através de uma lista de sinais relacionados a problemas bucais. Foram examinados 743 adolescentes. Resultados: Os adolescentes tinham em média 26,14 ±3,61 dentes; 129 (17,4%) sem cárie, 301 (40,5%) possuíam uma ou duas, 223 (30,0%) três ou mais; 110 (14,8%) tinham raiz residual, 121 (25,7%) cálculo, 74 (10,0%) gengiva inflamada, 15 (2,0%) agravos aos tecidos da boca; 49 (6,6%) necessitavam prótese; 694 (93,4%) usavam escova dental; e 281 (51,3%) visitaram o dentista no último ano. Detectou-se associação entre visita ao dentista no último ano e gênero feminino (p=0, 0001), e entre idade menor de 12 anos e três ou mais cáries (p=0,023). Conclusão: Os dados levantados demonstram baixos indicadores de saúde bucal nos adolescentes. Identificou-se agravamento do nível de saúde bucal dos menores de 12 anos em relação aos mais velhos, o que demanda política pública voltada para esta realidade. Os dados sugerem que ICSB pode ser utilizado em levantamentos feitos em bases populacionais.

Objective: To present epidemiological data on adolescents oral health, collected by Community Health Agents (CHA) using Community Oral Health Indicator (COHI) in a city of Ceará State, Brazil. Methods: Cross-sectional study conducted in Guaiúba-CE from July, 2007 to February, 2008. Community health agents collected data using the COHI. The COHI evaluates the masticatory capacity (number of teeth); the need of restorative care (dental cavities and residual roots); presence of soft tissue injury; use and need of dental prosthesis. It allows giving priority care to the patients with greater needs by means of a list of signs related to oral health problems. A total of 743 adolescents were examined. Results: adolescents had 26.14 ± 3.61 teeth on average; 129 (17.4%) did not present cavities, 301 (40.5%) had one or two, 223 (30.0%), had three or more; 110 (14.8%) presented residual root, 121 (25.7%) tartar, 74 (10.0%) sore gums, 15 (2.0%) oral tissues injuries; 49 (6.6%) required prosthesis; 694 (93.4%) used toothbrush; and 281 (51.3%) had visited the dentist last year. It was detected an association between visit to the dentist in the last year and gender (p = 0, 0001), and between age below 12 and having three or more cavities (p = 0.023).Conclusion: Collected data demonstrated low oral health indicators among teenagers. It was noted that those aged under 12 present oral health indicators worse than the older ones, which demands public policies concerning such reality. Data suggests that COHI is suitable for epidemiological surveys.

Avaliação de estratégias inovadoras na organização da Atenção Primária à Saúde / Evaluation of innovative strategies in the organization of Primary Health Care / Evaluación de estrategias innovadoras en la organización de la Atención Primaria de la Salud en Campinas, Sureste de Brasil

OBJETIVO: Comparar o desempenho de Unidades Básicas de Saúde segundo a implantação de novos arranjos e estratégias de atenção primária e saúde mental. PROCEDIMENTOS METODOLÓGICOS: Pesquisa avaliativa, com triangulação de métodos e referencial teórico da hermenêutica crítica em seis Unidades Básicas de Saúde dos dois distritos de saúde mais populosos de Campinas, SP, 2007. As Unidades Básicas de Saúde foram analisadas segundo resolutividade da clínica, articulação entre as redes de atenção primária e saúde mental e implantação de estratégias de promoção à saúde. Foram definidos dois grupos pela técnica de clusters: um com maior e outro com menor grau de implantação das ações. Os grupos foram comparados a partir da melhora do seguimento clínico, dada pela ocorrência de acidente vascular cerebral; avaliação da dispensação de medicamentos psiquiátricos; grupos focais com trabalhadores, usuários e agentes comunitários de saúde; e entrevistas com usuários e familiares. Empregaram-se estratégias de pesquisa inclusivas e participativas. ANÁLISE DOS RESULTADOS: Não houve modelos puros, mas um mosaico de propostas organizacionais. Foram identificados avanços positivos no grupo com maior implantação de estratégias inovadoras em relação à melhor integração dos agentes comunitários nas equipes das Unidades; à percepção de melhora da assistência pelos trabalhadores e agentes; e à facilidade para encaminhamentos e assistência de casos de saúde mental. As dificuldades identificadas em ambos os grupos foram: comunicação entre os níveis de atenção e dentro das equipes, na implantação do apoio matricial, e ações de promoção à saúde incipientes. CONCLUSÕES: São necessários o desenvolvimento e a implantação de mecanismos de fixação de profissionais na Atenção Básica nas grandes cidades. Os ACS são imprescindíveis para viabilizar o trabalho territorial proposto pela ESF, utilizando mecanismos de integração dos ACS às equipes de saúde para contrabalançar a tendência ao isolamento. Os arranjos pesquisados mostraram-se potentes para produzir essa integração.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the performance of Primary Care Units according to the implementation of new arrangements and strategies in primary care and mental health. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES: Evaluative research with triangulation of methods and theoretical framework of critical hermeneutics, carried out at six Primary Care Units of the two most populous health districts of the city of Campinas (Southeastern Brazil) in 2007. The Primary Care Units were analyzed according to clinical resolution, articulation between the primary care and mental health networks and implementation of health promotion strategies. Two groups were defined by cluster analysis: one with higher and another one with lower degree of implementation of the actions. The groups were compared based on the improvement in clinical follow-up, given by the occurrence of cerebral vascular accident; evaluation of dispensation of psychiatric medicines; focal groups with workers, users and community health agents; and interviews with users and relatives. Inclusive and participatory research strategies were employed. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS: There were no pure models, but a mosaic of organizational proposals. Positive advances were identified in the group with higher implementation of innovative strategies in relation to better integration of the community agents in the Units' teams; to the workers' and agents' perception of improvement in the assistance; and to the facility for referrals and assistance of mental health cases. The difficulties identified in both groups were: communication among the levels of care and within the teams, in the implementation of matrix support, and incipient health promotion actions. CONCLUSIONS: The development and implementation of mechanisms to fix professionals in Primary Care in large cities are necessary. The community health agents are fundamental to perform the territorial work proposed by the Family Health Strategy, using mechanisms to integrate the community health agents into the healthcare teams in order to counterbalance the tendency to isolation. The researched arrangements proved to be potent to produce this integration.

OBJETIVO: Comparar el desempeño de Unidades Básicas de Salud según la implantación de nuevas soluciones y estrategias de atención primaria y salud mental. PROCEDIMIENTOS METODOLÓGICOS: Investigación evaluativa, con triangulación de métodos y referencias teóricas de hermenéutica crítica en seis Unidades Básicas de Salud de dos distritos de salud más populosos de Campinas, Sureste de Brasil, 2007. Las Unidades Básicas de Salud fueron analizadas según la dinámica de la clínica, articulación entre las redes de atención primaria y salud mental e implantación de estrategias de promoción de la salud. Se definieron dos grupos por la técnica de clusters: uno con mayor grado de implantación de las acciones que el otro. Los grupos fueron comparados a partir del mejoramiento del seguimiento clínico, dada por la ocurrencia de accidente vascular cerebral; evaluación de la eximición de medicamentos psiquiátricos; grupos focales con trabajadores, usuarios y agentes comunitarios de salud y entrevistas con usuarios y familiares. Se emplearon estrategias de investigación inclusiva y participativa. ANÁLISIS DE RESULTADOS: No hubo modelos puros, pero si un mosaico de propuestas de organización. Se identificaron avances positivos en el grupo con mayor implantación de estrategias innovadoras con relación a la mejor integración de los agentes comunitarios en los equipos de las Unidades; la percepción de mejoramiento de la asistencia por los trabajadores y agentes; y facilidad para direccionamientos y asistencia de casos de salud mental. Las dificultades identificadas en ambos grupos fueron: comunicación entre los niveles de atención y dentro de los equipos, en la implantación del apoyo matricial, acciones de promoción de la salud incipientes. CONCLUSIONES: Son necesarios el desarrollo y la implantación de mecanismos de establecer profesionales en la Atención Básica en las grandes ciudades. Los ACS son imprescindibles para viabilizar el trabajo territorial propuesto por la ESF, utilizando mecanismos de integración de los ACS a los equipos de salud para compensar la tendencia al aislamiento. Las soluciones investigadas se revelan potentes para producir esta integración.

Evaluation of innovative strategies in the organization of Primary Health Care.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the performance of Primary Care Units according to the implementation of new arrangements and strategies in primary care and mental health. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES: Evaluative research with triangulation of methods and theoretical framework of critical hermeneutics, carried out at six Primary Care Units of the two most populous health districts of the city of Campinas (Southeastern Brazil) in 2007. The Primary Care Units were analyzed according to clinical resolution, articulation between the primary care and mental health networks and implementation of health promotion strategies. Two groups were defined by cluster analysis: one with higher and another one with lower degree of implementation of the actions. The groups were compared based on the improvement in clinical follow-up, given by the occurrence of cerebral vascular accident; evaluation of dispensation of psychiatric medicines; focal groups with workers, users and community health agents; and interviews with users and relatives. Inclusive and participatory research strategies were employed. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS: There were no pure models, but a mosaic of organizational proposals. Positive advances were identified in the group with higher implementation of innovative strategies in relation to better integration of the community agents in the Units' teams; to the workers' and agents' perception of improvement in the assistance; and to the facility for referrals and assistance of mental health cases. The difficulties identified in both groups were: communication among the levels of care and within the teams, in the implementation of matrix support, and incipient health promotion actions. CONCLUSIONS: The development and implementation of mechanisms to fix professionals in Primary Care in large cities are necessary. The community health agents are fundamental to perform the territorial work proposed by the Family Health Strategy, using mechanisms to integrate the community health agents into the healthcare teams in order to counterbalance the tendency to isolation. The researched arrangements proved to be potent to produce this integration.

Visual reasoning about social networks using centrality sensitivity.

In this paper, we study the sensitivity of centrality metrics as a key metric of social networks to support visual reasoning. As centrality represents the prestige or importance of a node in a network, its sensitivity represents the importance of the relationship between this and all other nodes in the network. We have derived an analytical solution that extracts the sensitivity as the derivative of centrality with respect to degree for two centrality metrics based on feedback and random walks. We show that these sensitivities are good indicators of the distribution of centrality in the network, and how changes are expected to be propagated if we introduce changes to the network. These metrics also help us simplify a complex network in a way that retains the main structural properties and that results in trustworthy, readable diagrams. Sensitivity is also a key concept for uncertainty analysis of social networks, and we show how our approach may help analysts gain insight on the robustness of key network metrics. Through a number of examples, we illustrate the need for measuring sensitivity, and the impact it has on the visualization of and interaction with social and other scale-free networks.

Patentes, suministro de medicamentos y protección de la Salud Pública / Patents, supply of medicines and protection of public health

INTRODUCCIÓN: A fin de cumplir con las obligaciones asumidas en la Organización Mundial del Comercio, Argentina comenzó a conceder patentes sobre medicamentos en octubre de 2000. Cerca de 1.000 patentes farmacéuticas fueron concedidas entre 2000 y 2007. OBJETIVOS: caracterizar el patentamiento farmacéutico y, en particular, establecer el tipo de materias protegidas, las aplicaciones terapéuticas y el origen de los titulares de patentes otorgadas; examinar el posible impacto del nuevo régimen de patentamiento sobre las adquisiciones públicas de medicamentos; clarificar en qué situaciones y con qué procedimientos pueden otorgarse licencias obligatorias, especialmente en casos de emergencia sanitaria; y examinar qué implicaciones tiene el marco legal nacional e internacional de la propiedad intelectual sobre las políticas de salud pública. MÉTODOS: Se diseñó y analizó una base de datos con las patentes concedidas en el período indicado. Se revisaron los procedimientos de adquisición de medicamentos del Ministerio de Salud de la Nación y el marco legal aplicable, así como las negociaciones internacionales en curso. RESULTADOS: casi la totalidad de las patentes otorgadas pertenecen a empresas extranjeras; la mayoría se refiere a enfermedades del sistema nervioso e incluyen reivindicaciones del tipo “Markush”. La mayoría de las patentes son de derivados o variantes de productos existentes(sales, formulaciones, polimorfos, etc.). CONCLUSIONES: El estudio concluye con recomendaciones, sobre los procedimientos de adquisición, concesión de licencias obligatorias y la transparencia del sistema de patentes en lo concerniente a medicamentos.

INTRODUCTION: In order to comply with its obligationsin the World Trade Organization, Argentina started to grant patents on pharmaceutical products in October 2000. In the period 2000-2007 near one thous and pharmaceutical patents were granted. OBJECTIVES: To characterize pharmaceutical patenting and, in particular, to establish the type of protected subject matter, the therapeutic uses and the origin of patent owners; to examine the possible impact of the new patentin gregime on public procurement of medicines; to clarify in which situations and with which procedures compulsory licenses can be granted, particularly in cases of health emergencies;to examine the implications of the national and international legal framework of intellectual property on public health policies.METHODS: A data base with the patents granted in the above-mentioned period was designed and analyzed, the procurement procedures of the National Ministry of Health were studied, as well as the applicable legal framework and ongoing international negotiations. RESULTS: The study revealed that almost all granted patents belong to foreign companies. The majority refers to diseases of the nervous system and includes‘Markush-type’. In addition, the great majority of patents relate to derivatives or variants of existing products (salts, formulations, polymorphs, etc. ). CONCLUSIONS: The study concludes with recommendations, about procurement procedures, the grant of compulsory licenses and the transparency of the patent system as regards medicines.

Cardiac output assessment using oxygen consumption estimated from the left ventricular pressure-volume area.

Use of a majority of structural variables (age, sex, height) to estimate oxygen consumption in the calculation of cardiac output (CO) by the Fick principle does not account for changes in physiological conditions. To improve this limitation, oxygen consumption was estimated based on the left ventricular pressure-volume area. A pilot study with 10 patients undergoing right cardiac catheterization showed that this approach was successful to estimate CO (r=0,73, vs. thermodilution measured CO). Further essays changing end-diastolic-volume in the pressure-volume area formula by body weight or body surface area showed that this last yielded the best correlation with the thermodilution measured CO (slope=1, ordinate =0.01 and r=0.93). These preliminary results indicate that use of a formula originated from the pressure-volume-area concept is a good alternative to estimate oxygen consumption for CO calculation.

Trade, TRIPS, and pharmaceuticals.

The World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) set global minimum standards for the protection of intellectual property, substantially increasing and expanding intellectual-property rights, and generated clear gains for the pharmaceutical industry and the developed world. The question of whether TRIPS generates gains for developing countries, in the form of increased exports, is addressed in this paper through consideration of the importance of pharmaceuticals in health-care trade, outlining the essential requirements, implications, and issues related to TRIPS, and TRIPS-plus, in which increased restrictions are imposed as part of bilateral free-trade agreements. TRIPS has not generated substantial gains for developing countries, but has further increased pharmaceutical trade in developed countries. The unequal trade between developed and developing countries (ie, exporting and importing high-value patented drugs, respectively) raises the issue of access to medicines, which is exacerbated by TRIPS-plus provisions, although many countries have not even enacted provision for TRIPS flexibilities. Therefore this paper focuses on options that are available to the health community for negotiation to their advantage under TRIPS, and within the presence of TRIPS-plus.

[Community health agents: training, involvement, and practices]. / O agente comunitário de saúde: formação, inserção e práticas.

The aim of this study was to identify contributions by the training course for community health agents provided by the Municipal Health Secretariat in Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil, from 2001 to 2003, to evaluate their assessment concerning its role in the community, and to identify its impact on their professional practice. This was a qualitative health study using the focus group technique, and the empirical data were analyzed with thematic content analysis. Training of community health agents aimed to include a professional capable of reflecting on and intervening in the local reality. The Family Health Program-Paidéia included community health agents in the health system to help reorganize the activities in the primary health care units and consolidate the model. The training allowed community health agents to act as educational protagonists, producing emancipative knowledge and encouraging reflection and the capacity for critical analysis, including daily practice as a key determinant of their learning process in the search for solutions to the community's problems.

O agente comunitário de saúde: formação, inserção e práticas / Community health agents: training, involvement, and practices

O objetivo desse estudo é identificar as contribuições que o curso de formação de agente comunitário de saúde oferecido pela Secretaria Municipal de Saúde de Campinas, São Paulo, Brasil nos anos de 2001 a 2003, para a avaliação que esses fazem da sua inserção no território, bem como apontar o impacto que teve na sua prática profissional. Trata-se de uma pesquisa de natureza qualitativa em saúde, sendo utilizada a técnica de grupo focal, e para a análise dos dados empíricos utilizamos a análise de conteúdo temática. A formação do agente comunitário de saúde tinha por objetivo inserir um profissional capaz de refletir e intervir sobre sua realidade. O Programa Saúde da Família - Paidéia incluiu o agente comunitário de saúde no sistema de saúde, para reordenar as ações trabalhadas nas unidades básicas de saúde e consolidar o modelo de saúde implantado. Constatamos que a formação possibilitou que o agente comunitário de saúde assumisse o papel de sujeito educativo produzindo um conhecimento emancipatório, estimulando a reflexão e a capacidade de análise crítica, incluindo a prática diária como um dos determinantes de seu aprendizado, na busca de solucionar problemas na comunidade.

The aim of this study was to identify contributions by the training course for community health agents provided by the Municipal Health Secretariat in Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil, from 2001 to 2003, to evaluate their assessment concerning its role in the community, and to identify its impact on their professional practice. This was a qualitative health study using the focus group technique, and the empirical data were analyzed with thematic content analysis. Training of community health agents aimed to include a professional capable of reflecting on and intervening in the local reality. The Family Health Program - Paidéia included community health agents in the health system to help reorganize the activities in the primary health care units and consolidate the model. The training allowed community health agents to act as educational protagonists, producing emancipative knowledge and encouraging reflection and the capacity for critical analysis, including daily practice as a key determinant of their learning process in the search for solutions to the community's problems.

Estado nutricional e carência de ferro em crianças freqüentadoras de creche antes e 15 meses após intervenção nutricional / Nutritional status and iron deficiency among children enrolled in a day care center before and after 15 months of nutritional management

OBJETIVO: Comparar o estado nutricional e a prevalência de carência de ferro em crianças freqüentadoras de creche antes e 15 meses após orientação nutricional e intervenção terapêutica. MÉTODOS: Estudo coorte com 52 crianças de 32 a 78 meses de idade, freqüentadoras de uma creche em Catanduva, São Paulo, avaliadas em dois períodos: antes e 15 meses após receberem tratamento para anemia e correção das alterações no estado nutricional. O estado nutricional das crianças foi avaliado por meio da curva da Organização Mundial de Saúde (2006). O diagnóstico de carência de ferro foi realizado por dosagem de hemoglobina e nível de ferritina sérica. Dados adicionais das crianças não eutróficas foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas com suas mães. RESULTADOS: Observou-se 2 por cento de desnutrição aguda e 8 por cento de obesidade, não havendo diferença significante entre os dois períodos. 12 por cento das crianças apresentaram anemia, havendo diminuição do número de crianças com anemia após o tratamento. Dois novos casos de obesidade e cinco de carência de ferro surgiram durante o período de intervenção nutricional. Das oito crianças com alterações nutricionais no período inicial, 63 por cento das mães procuraram atendimento médico para tratamento. CONCLUSÕES: O tratamento dos distúrbios nutricionais e da carência de ferro diminuiu o número de crianças afetadas. O aparecimento de novos casos de obesidade e anemia serve de alerta para a necessidade de outras medidas preventivas tanto na creche como no âmbito familiar.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the nutritional status and the prevalence of iron deficiency among children enrolled in a day care center before and after 15 months of nutritional management. METHODS: Cohort study of 52 children, aged 32 to 78 months, evaluated before and after treatment of anemia and nutritional disturbs in a no-profit day care center in Catanduva, São Paulo, Brazil. The nutritional status was classified according to World Health Organization (2006) criteria. Iron deficiency anemia was detected by hemoglobin and ferritin levels. Additional characteristics of non-eutrophic children were obtained by interview with their mothers. RESULTS: Among the evaluated children, 2 percent presented acute malnutrition and 8 percent were obese, without significant difference between the two periods of the study. Abnormal values of hemoglobin and/or ferritin were noted in 12 percent of the children. During the study period, two new cases of obesity and five cases of iron deficiency were observed. Interview with the mothers of non-eutrophic children prior to intervention showed that 63 percent of them looked for medical assistance in order to treat the nutritional disorders. CONCLUSIONS: The number of children with nutritional disorders and iron deficiency decreased. New cases of obesity and anemia indicate the need to adopt effective preventive measures, both in the day care center and in the children's homes.

Analyzing the outcomes of health promotion practices.

This article focuses on health promotion (HP) outcomes, illustrated through evaluation of case studies and identification of strategies which have contributed to their success and sustainability. Evaluation research and practice in three distinct sceneries are discussed: (i) institutional and governmental agencies; (ii) communities in the "Manguinhos Complex" and Nova Iguaqu Municipality, and (iii) building of potentially healthy municipality networks. The effectiveness of a social program in a health promotion perspective was based in the "School for Parents" program, undertaken by the First Court of Childhood and Youth of Rio de Janeiro, between 2001 and 2004. The analysis was grounded in the monitoring of 48 parents in charge of children under 18, who were victims of abuse, violence or negligence, and social exclusion, most of all. The study's objectives were: illustrating the evidence of effectiveness of health promotion, discussing the concept of HP effectiveness under macro unfavorable conditions, and identifying strategies that foster sustainability of results. Institutional resources included a multi-professional staff, multidisciplinary approaches, participatory workshops, family case management, partnership with public and private institutions, and volunteer and civil society sponsorship of the families. Evaluation was based on social impact indicators, and psychosocial and contextual determinants. Evaluation methods included program monitoring and quantitative-qualitative methods, through a longitudinal evaluation of 3 years, including one year post program. The evaluation showed highly favorable results concerning "family integration', "quality of family relations" and "human rights mobilization". Unsatisfactory results such as "lack of access to formal employment" are likely related to structural factors and the need for new public policies in areas such as education, professional training, housing, and access to formal employment. The training process of social actors in environmental management and housing, supported by the Public Health Technology Development Project of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, was employed as a tool of environmental education and healthy housing. The purpose of this study was to construct an integrated and participatory model of environment management. The methodology included training, research and evaluation of participants, from 21 to 50 years of age, who participated in building Thematic Learning Books and Community Guides about water quality monitoring. Participants'evaluations emphasized the training process, encouraging them to become multiplier agents of environmental education in their communities and to continue learning how to bring together sectors for problems solving. The Potentially Healthy Districts' Network (RMPS) aimed at increasing knowledge and building capacity to develop actions which originate from each of the local units, based on their characteristics and practices. Developed by the Preventive and Social Department of Campinas State University with PAHO/WHO and the Society Special Research Institute (IPES), RMPS's mission was to cooperate in the construction of healthy public policies in a participatory and articulated way through different municipal representatives. The network offered tools to municipal administrations to develop integrated projects that brought together government, managers, technicians, academy and organizations for the construction of public policies aimed at health promotion and quality of life. The methodology is based in the construction of knowledge and action networks by social actors, stimulating trans-sectorial and inter-district actions. The outcome evaluation is based on case studies, focus groups, oral stories, documents and image analyses.