A National Survey of Perceptions Around Conditions Associated With Pharmacy Faculty Workload Equity.

OBJECTIVE: To assess pharmacy faculty members' perceptions of conditions associated with workload equity and factors that can improve workload equity. METHODS: A 26-item survey instrument was developed and distributed via email to members of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Council of Faculties. Questions pertained to the workload distribution, fairness in assignment, and perception of the conditions associated with workload equity (transparency, context, credit, clarity, norms, and accountability) as well as institutional and individual demographics. RESULTS: A total of 662 responses were obtained (response rate 15.9%). Respondents' demographics were comparable to available national data. Approximately 41% of respondents reported their institutions did not have a written faculty workload policy. Most respondents reported their workload assignment was fair (highest with research/scholarship) but reported only moderate alignment between assigned and actual workloads. The rating level for what domains the primary decision maker uses to assign workload was highest for context, followed by credit, clarity, and transparency. Transparency was reported as the most needed condition to improve faculty perception of workload equity. Respondents also rated increasing trust between leadership and faculty and increasing productivity and accountability as the most important reasons to minimize workload inequities. CONCLUSION: This was the first national survey of pharmacy faculty perceptions around the conditions associated with workload equity. Though additional research is needed in this area, programs can work to implement strategies associated with all of the conditions, particularly transparency, to improve faculty perceptions of equity.

Perceptions and Practices for Evaluating Faculty Workload by Pharmacy Education Administration/Leadership.

OBJECTIVE: To assess how department chairs/administrators define, measure, and evaluate faculty workload to better understand practices within the Academy. METHODS: An 18-item survey was distributed to department chairs/administrators via American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Connect. Participants identified if they are a primary decision maker for faculty workload, whether their program has a workload policy, how workload is calculated, and how faculty satisfaction with workload equity is measured. RESULTS: Of 71 participants initiating the survey, data from 64 participants from 52 colleges/schools were eligible for analysis. Leaders of practice departments reported that their faculty spend an average of 38% of their time on teaching (compared to 46% for non-practice departments), 13% on research (vs 37%), 12% on service (vs 16%), and 36% on clinical practice (vs 0%). Most survey participants (n = 57, 89%) are at schools/colleges with a tenure system, and about 24 participants reported that faculty workload metrics differ across departments/divisions. Teaching assignments and service are reportedly negotiable between faculty and supervisors, and workload expectations are widely variable. The majority indicated they do not analyze faculty satisfaction with workload fairness (n = 35) and faculty do not provide evaluative feedback on how supervisors assign faculty workload (n = 34). Of 6 priorities considered when determining workload, 'support college/school strategies and priorities' ranked highest (1.92) and 'trust between the chair and faculty' ranked lowest (4.87). CONCLUSION: Overall, only half of the participants reported having a clear, written process of quantifying faculty workload. The use of workload metrics may be needed for evidence-based decision-making for personnel management and resource allocation.

Educational research and scholarship - Brainstorming, developing, and publishing together as teams.

INTRODUCTION: Collaborative educational research and scholarship is a powerful tool to help schools/colleges of pharmacy learn from and with each other to continuously improve by sharing best practices. COMMENTARY: There are significant advantages including developing projects with more generalizability and impact, leveraging different and complementary expertise, informal mentorship of junior faculty researchers, task sharing, and group accountability. There are also challenges such as managing multiple participants, sticking to productivity goals and timelines, and scheduling virtual meetings across multiple time zones. IMPLICATIONS: For a number of years, the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy's Assessment Special Interest Group has intentionally created opportunities for new connections with the purpose of fostering scholarship projects to pursue interesting questions and engage in educational research with other like-minded colleagues. The purpose of this commentary is to share with members of the academy several practical tips for leading and engaging in group projects of educational scholarship.

An initial environmental scan of APPE readiness assessment.

INTRODUCTION: Standards 2016 require schools/colleges of pharmacy (s/cop) to assess students' readiness to enter advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs). However, literature describing how schools are meeting this standard is limited. The purpose of this study was to conduct an environmental scan to describe how s/cop assess student readiness to enter APPEs. METHODS: A web-based survey was distributed to assessment leads at United States s/cop, regardless of accreditation status. Respondents answered questions related to their current approach to assessing student APPE readiness, existence of intentional assessment plans, competencies used, assessment methods, benchmarks, and remediation strategies. Aggregate data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Fifty-two S/COP (36.1%) responded. The majority (90.1%) were fully accredited schools. Most respondents have an intentional APPE readiness plan (73.5%), although the duration since implementation varied. There was no consensus among schools on which competencies informed APPE readiness with 67.3% listing Center for the Advancement of Pharmacy Education (CAPE) 2013 outcomes, 61.2% Guidance for Standards 2016 Appendix A, 53.1% pre-APPE domains (Standards 2007), and 30.6% Entrustable Professional Activities. Twenty-eight S/COP (57.1%) reported having individual student-level data to assess student APPE readiness. The most common methods for validating student APPE readiness were preceptor (48.9%) and student (44.9%) surveys. CONCLUSIONS: This environmental scan begins to identify trends in how S/COP is approaching the assessment of student readiness to begin APPEs. Further research is needed to identify best practices and practical methods to ensure compliance with current accreditation standards.

Characterization of Use of the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment Across Accredited Colleges of Pharmacy.

Objective. To characterize use of the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) in terms of timing, manner of delivery, and application of the results by accredited colleges of pharmacy. Methods. Accredited pharmacy programs were surveyed regarding PCOA administration, perceived benefits, and practical application of score reports. Survey items were comprised of new items developed from a literature review and items from prior studies. The survey addressed five domains: program demographics, administration, student preparation, use of results, and recommendations to improve the utility of the PCOA. Results. Responses were received from 126 of 139 (91%) surveyed programs. The majority of respondent programs administered PCOA in one session on a single campus. Most indicated PCOA results had limited use for individual student assessment. Almost half reported that results were or could be useful in curriculum review and benchmarking. Considerable variability existed in the preparation and incentives for PCOA performance. Differences in some results were found based on prior PCOA experience and between new vs older programs. Open-ended responses provided suggestions to enhance the application and utility of PCOA. Conclusion. The intended uses of PCOA results, such as for student assessment, curricular review, and programmatic benchmarking, are not being implemented across the academy. Streamlining examination logistics, providing additional examination-related data, and clarifying the purpose of the examination to faculty members and students may increase the utility of PCOA results.

Best Practices on Examination Construction, Administration, and Feedback.

Examinations are typically used in higher education to objectively assess student learning, and they are also used as a frequent assessment tool in the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum. This paper describes best practices and provides examples for faculty to build reliable and valid examinations, ensure examination security and deter academic misconduct, and enhance student learning and achievement of course objectives. Colleges and schools of pharmacy can incorporate these concepts into comprehensive examination policies and focus faculty development efforts on improving the examination purpose, design, and experience for both faculty and students.

Creating an Arms Race? Examining School Costs and Motivations for Providing NAPLEX and PCOA Preparation.

Objective. To examine the extent of financial and faculty resources dedicated to preparing students for NAPLEX and PCOA examinations, and how these investments compare with NAPLEX pass rates. Methods. A 23-item survey was administered to assessment professionals in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy (C/SOPs). Institutions were compared by type, age, and student cohort size. Institutional differences were explored according to the costs and types of NAPLEX and PCOA preparation provided, if any, and mean NAPLEX pass rates. Results. Of 134 C/SOPs that received the survey invitation, 91 responded. Nearly 80% of these respondents reported providing some form of NAPLEX preparation. Significantly higher 2015 mean NAPLEX pass rates were found in public institutions, schools that do not provide NAPLEX prep, and schools spending less than $10,000 annually on NAPLEX prep. Only 18 schools reported providing PCOA preparation. Conclusion. Investment in NAPLEX and PCOA preparation resources vary widely across C/SOPs but may increase in the next few years, due to dropping NAPLEX pass rates and depending upon how PCOA data are used.

A Faculty Toolkit for Formative Assessment in Pharmacy Education.

This paper aims to increase understanding and appreciation of formative assessment and its role in improving student outcomes and the instructional process, while educating faculty on formative techniques readily adaptable to various educational settings. Included are a definition of formative assessment and the distinction between formative and summative assessment. Various formative assessment strategies to evaluate student learning in classroom, laboratory, experiential, and interprofessional education settings are discussed. The role of reflective writing and portfolios, as well as the role of technology in formative assessment, are described. The paper also offers advice for formative assessment of faculty teaching. In conclusion, the authors emphasize the importance of creating a culture of assessment that embraces the concept of 360-degree assessment in both the development of a student's ability to demonstrate achievement of educational outcomes and a faculty member's ability to become an effective educator.

Potential cost avoidance of pharmacy students' patient care activities during advanced pharmacy practice experiences.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the potential cost avoidance of student interventions documented by fourth-year (P4) student pharmacists during advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) in outpatient and inpatient settings. METHODS: The school-wide Web-based intervention database was retrospectively analyzed to review characteristics of interventions documented during the 2011-2012 APPE cycle. Potential cost avoidance for interventions was derived from a comprehensive literature review and adjusted to 2011 dollars based on the consumer price index for medical care. RESULTS: Eighty-seven students (71% of the graduating class) documented 5,775 interventions over 36 weeks, with an estimated potential total cost avoidance of $908,800. The intervention categories associated with the greatest cost avoidance were prevention of adverse drug events, provider education, and patient education. CONCLUSIONS: Fourth-year student pharmacists and their preceptors had a positive impact, contributing to potential cost avoidance in both the inpatient and outpatient pharmacy settings.

Providers' perceptions of student pharmacists on inpatient general medicine practice experiences.

OBJECTIVE: To assess health care providers' perceptions of student pharmacists involved as members of a general medicine team. METHODS: A brief, anonymous, online survey instrument was distributed to 134 health care providers at 4 major medical centers in Massachusetts who interacted with Northeastern University student pharmacists during inpatient general medicine advanced pharmacy practice experiences beginning in March 2011. The survey instrument assessed health care provider perception of student pharmacists' involvement, preparedness, clinical skills, and therapeutic recommendations. RESULTS: Of the 79 providers who responded, 96.2% reported that student pharmacists were prepared for medical rounds and 87.3% reported that student pharmacists were active participants in patient care. Also, 94.9% and 98.7% of providers indicated that student pharmacist recommendations were appropriate and accurate, respectively. The majority (61.8%) of providers believed that student pharmacist involvement on internal medicine teams was beneficial. CONCLUSIONS: Provider perceptions regarding student pharmacist participation on general medicine practice experiences were mostly positive.

Follow-up assessment of a faculty peer observation and evaluation program.

OBJECTIVE: To assess a previously described peer observation and evaluation program 2 years after implementation. METHODS: An pre-implementation survey assessed faculty needs and attitudes related to peer evaluation. Two years after implementation, the survey was repeated and additional questions asked regarding adherence to peer observation and evaluation policies and procedures, feedback received, and impact on teaching. RESULTS: Faculty attitudes towards peer evaluation stayed the same or improved post-implementation. Adherence to the initial 3 steps of the process was high (100%, 100%, and 94%, respectively); however, step 4, which required a final discussion after student assessments were finished, was completed by only 47% of the respondents. All faculty members reported receiving a balance of positive and constructive feedback; 78% agreed that peer observation and evaluation gave them concrete suggestions for improving their teaching; and 89% felt that the benefits of peer observation and evaluation outweighed the effort of participating. CONCLUSIONS: Faculty members adhered to the policies and procedures of peer observation and evaluation and found peer feedback was beneficial.

Development of a peer teaching-assessment program and a peer observation and evaluation tool.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a formalized, comprehensive, peer-driven teaching assessment program and a valid and reliable assessment tool. METHODS: A volunteer taskforce was formed and a peer-assessment program was developed using a multistep, sequential approach and the Peer Observation and Evaluation Tool (POET). A pilot study was conducted to evaluate the efficiency and practicality of the process and to establish interrater reliability of the tool. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated. RESULTS: ICCs for 8 separate lectures evaluated by 2-3 observers ranged from 0.66 to 0.97, indicating good interrater reliability of the tool. CONCLUSION: Our peer assessment program for large classroom teaching, which includes a valid and reliable evaluation tool, is comprehensive, feasible, and can be adopted by other schools of pharmacy.