Sex, gender and blindness: a new framework for equity.

Four-fifths of all blind or vision impaired people live in middle-income and low-income countries with the African region and parts of Asia and the Middle East bearing the heaviest burden. At the same time, we know that around two thirds of all blind people in the world are female. Hence, the poorest (and usually the oldest) women are most likely to have their lives limited by visual impairment. While recent strategies have focussed on international variations in eye health, very few have paid attention to the gender differences that are an inextricable element in these inequalities. This review will explore possible explanations for the advantage of men in the exercise of one of the most basic of human senses. It will show that this cannot be understood through the use of a biomedical approach alone. Broader social perspectives will also be needed in order to create an appropriate knowledge base for tackling global inequalities in blindness.

The odd couple: using biomedical and intersectional approaches to address health inequities.

BACKGROUND: Better understanding and addressing health inequities is a growing global priority. OBJECTIVE: In this paper, we contribute to the literature examining complex relationships between biological and social dimensions in the field of health inequalities. Specifically, we explore the potential of intersectionality to advance current approaches to socio-biological entwinements. DESIGN: We provide a brief overview of current approaches to combining both biological and social factors in a single study, and then investigate the contributions of an intersectional framework to such work. RESULTS: We offer a number of concrete examples of how intersectionality has been used empirically to bring both biological and social factors together in the areas of HIV, post-traumatic stress disorder, female genital circumcision/mutilation/cutting, and cardiovascular disease. CONCLUSION: We argue that an intersectional approach can further research that integrates biological and social aspects of human lives and human health and ultimately generate better and more precise evidence for effective policies and practices aimed at tackling health inequities.

'I count myself as being in a different world': African gay and bisexual men living with HIV in London. An exploratory study.

The experiences of men from African backgrounds living with HIV who are gay/bisexual have so far been overlooked in the research on HIV in the UK. Little is known about the ways that HIV impacts on this population. We report on an exploratory qualitative study with 8 gay/bisexual men from 7 different African countries living with HIV in London, based on in depth semi structured interviews and a thematic analysis. HIV testing and diagnosis, disclosure to others, social and sexual networks, sexual relationships and practices, use of health services and coping mechanisms emerged as key themes. Men with insecure residency status in the UK and those without work had additional challenges to meet. Men described the constant juggling required to balance the complex and sometimes contradictory realities of life as a gay/bisexual man, an African and an HIV positive person. Actual and perceived stigma was a key barrier to accessing appropriate practical and emotional support from families, social network or religious organisations.

Understanding women, health, and social change: the case of South Korea.

Since the 1960s, South Korea has experienced rapid economic development and an improvement in the health of its population. During this period there have been marked increases in women's educational and occupational opportunities. But despite these improvements, women still suffer higher levels of gender discrimination than their counterparts in many other countries at similar stages of development. Most dramatically, there are still high levels of sex-selective abortion. Women have lower socioeconomic status than men, and their lives are markedly restricted by the cultural values associated with Confucianism. This article explores the effects of these factors on women's health. Despite their greater longevity, South Korean women still report higher rates of morbidity and distress than men. This can be compared with the "gender paradox" in health reported in many developed countries during the 1970s and 1980s. More detailed research is needed on the factors influencing the health of South Korean women and on related trends in other newly industrializing Asian societies.

Sex and gender: the challenges for epidemiologists.

Gender issues are now receiving more attention on global and national health agendas. However, the evidence base for policy and practice in this area remains limited and conceptual confusion is still common. This article reviews the challenges facing epidemiologists and other researchers who aim to make their work more "gender sensitive." It begins by exploring the concepts of biological "sex" and social "gender" and assesses their implications for the health of both women and men. It then reviews a range of strategies for mainstreaming sex and gender into health research. The article concludes with brief comments on the links between gender equity and wider equality concerns.