Understanding differences within ethnic group designation: comparing risk factors and health indicators between Iranian and Arab Americans in Northern California.

BACKGROUND: The Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) ethnic group is a diverse group composed of two primary subsets in the United States: Iranian and Arab Americans. We aimed to compare health risk factors, chronic health conditions, and mental health conditions of Iranian and Arab American adults in Northern California. METHODS: We used cross-sectional electronic health record (EHR) data from a 2016 Northern California health plan study cohort to compare adults classified as Iranian or Arab American based on ethnicity, language, or surname. We produced age-standardized prevalence estimates of obesity, smoking, hyperlipidemia, prediabetes, diabetes, hypertension, depression, and anxiety for Iranian and Arab American men and women by age group (35-44, 45-64, and 65-84) and overall (35-84). We used generalized linear models to calculate prevalence ratios (PR) to compare Iranian and Arab American adults ages 35-84 on all health indicators. RESULTS: Compared to Arab Americans, Iranian Americans had a lower prevalence of obesity (PR: 0.77, 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.73, 0.82), current smoking (PR: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.73, 0.89), and ever smoking (PR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.91, 0.99), but a higher prevalence of hyperlipidemia (PR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.12), prediabetes (PR: 1.12, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.16), depression (PR; 1.41, 95% CI: 1.30, 1.52), and anxiety (PR: 1.52, 95% CI: 1.42, 1.63). Similar patterns were observed for men and women. CONCLUSION: This work supports the need to collect granular data on race and ethnicity within the MENA ethnic group to improve identification in clinical care settings and population health reporting to better address the physical and mental health needs of different MENA subgroups.

Health Risks and Chronic Health Conditions among Arab American and White Adults in Northern California.

Objectives: To characterize the prevalence of chronic cardiovascular conditions and risk factors among Arab American adults stratified by sex and compare these with non-Hispanic Whites. Design: Cross-sectional study using electronic health record data from visits between January 2015 and December 2016. Age-adjusted prevalence estimates were calculated for men and women and compared using generalized linear models. Setting: Kaiser Permanente health plan in Northern California. Participants: Non-Hispanic White (N=969,566) and Arab American (N=18,072) adult members. Main Outcome Measures: Sex-stratified prevalence and prevalence ratios of diabetes, pre-diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia diagnosed by December 2016 and of obesity, ever smoking, and current smoking status. Results: Arab American men had a significantly higher prevalence of ever smoking (41.8 vs 40.8%), diabetes (17.3 vs 12.5%), and hyperlipidemia (40.8 vs 34.7%) than White men, but a significantly lower prevalence of obesity (34.4 vs 37.8%) and hypertension (30.5 vs 33.3%). Arab American women had a significantly higher prevalence of diabetes (11.1 vs 8.7%) and hyperlipidemia (31.5 vs 28.3%) than White women but significantly lower prevalence of obesity (31.0 vs 34.2%), ever smoking (24.8 vs 34.5%), and hypertension (25.8 vs 28.4%). Conclusions: Hospital and health systems should intentionally collect data on Middle Eastern and North African ethnicity in electronic health records to identify and reduce the disparities this minority group faces.

Racial disparities in COVID-19 mortality across Michigan, United States.

BACKGROUND: Black populations in the United States are being disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, but the increased mortality burden after accounting for health and other demographic characteristics is not well understood. We examined characteristics of individuals who died from COVID-19 in Michigan by race stratified by their age, sex and comorbidity prevalence to illustrate and understand this disparity in mortality risk. METHODS: We evaluate COVID-19 mortality in Michigan by demographic and health characteristics, using individual-level linked death certificate and surveillance data collected by the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services from March 16 to October 26, 2020. We identified differences in demographics and comorbidity prevalence across race among individuals who died from COVID-19 and calculated mortality rates by age, sex, race, and number of comorbidities. FINDINGS: Among the 6,065 COVID-19 related deaths in Michigan, Black individuals are experiencing 3·6 times the mortality rate of White individuals (p<0.001), with a mortality rate for Black individuals under 65 years without comorbidities that is 12·6 times that of their White counterparts (p<0.001). After accounting for age, race, sex, and number of comorbidities, we find that Black individuals in all strata are at higher risk of COVID-19 mortality than their White counterparts. INTERPRETATION: Our findings demonstrate that Black populations are disproportionately burdened by COVID-19 mortality, even after accounting for demographic and underlying health characteristics. We highlight how disparities across race, which result from systemic racism, are compounded in crises. FUNDING: ASP, AP and APG were funded by NSF Expeditions grant 1918784, NIH grant 1R01AI151176-01, NSF Rapid Response Research for COVID-19 grant RAPID-2027755, and the Notsew Orm Sands Foundation. MCF was supported by NIH grant K01AI141576.

Objective and subjective poor mental health indicators among Arab Americans in Michigan: a population-based study.

Background: Arab Americans are at high risk for poor mental health outcomes and are difficult to study at a population level due to a lack of racial/ethnic identifiers for this population.Methods: Using data from the standalone 2013 Michigan Arab Behavioral Risk Factor Survey (MI ABRFS) we aimed to understand whether the burden of mental health differed between Arab Americans and non-Arab, non-Hispanic Whites. Two measures of mental health were used: a subjective (number of poor mental health days experienced in the past 30 days) and an objective (being diagnosed with depression) measure. Additionally, we aimed to understand the sociodemographic, stress, and health-related variables associated with the objective and subjective measures of psychopathologies in the Arab American population in Michigan using population-weighted logistic regression models with survey design correction.Results: Arab Americans had increased odds of adverse mental health when compared to non-Arab, non-Hispanic Whites for the subjective measure of number of poor mental health days (OR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.08, 2.41) and decreased odds of reporting the objective measure of diagnosed depression (OR: 0.54, 95% CI: 0.30, 0.98). Having more than one poor mental health day and being diagnosed with depression among Arab Americans was associated with being female, unmarried, unemployed, and having experienced abuse as a child.Discussion: Combining mental health screenings with primary care check-ups among Arab Americans may be an important step in identifying individuals with mental health needs and extending access to care.

Relevance of the "Immigrant Health Paradox" for the Health of Arab Americans in California.

Objectives. To assess the validity of the immigrant health paradox among Arab Americans in California.Methods. We used data from the 2003 to 2017 California Health Interview Survey (n = 1425). We used survey-weighted χ2 and logistic regression analyses to compare Arabs by immigrant generation on socioeconomic indicators, health behaviors, and health outcomes.Results. Second-generation Arab Americans had higher odds of binge drinking (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 3.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.53, 6.94) in the past year than did first-generation Arab Americans. Third-generation Arab Americans had greater odds of receiving the influenza vaccine in the past year (AOR = 3.29; 95% CI = 1.09, 9.98) than did second-generation Arab Americans. Third-generation Arab Americans had increased odds of being overweight or obese when compared with first- (AOR = 2.59; 95% CI = 1.02, 6.58) and second-generation Arab Americans (AOR = 3.22; 95% CI = 1.25, 8.29), respectively.Conclusions. Alcohol use increased across immigrant generations, and we observed no differences in health outcomes, other than obesity. The immigrant health paradox does not appear to apply to Arab Americans in California; mechanisms that generate health in this population should be studied further.

Differences in health behaviors and health outcomes among non-Hispanic Whites and Arab Americans in a population-based survey in California.

BACKGROUND: Few population-based studies of Arab American health behaviors and outcomes exist outside of Michigan. We aimed to provide prevalence estimates of health behaviors and outcomes for Arab Americans and compare them to non-Hispanic Whites in California. METHODS: We used data from the 2003-2016 California Health Interview Surveys. We determined Arab American ethnicity using an algorithm that considered place of birth of the respondent or parent and use of Arabic language at home. Survey-weighted frequencies, chi-squared statistics, and logistic regression analyses were used to compare Arab Americans and non-Hispanic Whites on socioeconomic indicators, health behaviors and health outcomes. Multivariable models were adjusted for age, education level, and insurance status. RESULTS: Arab Americans had higher prevalence of no insurance, living below the federal poverty level, and home ownership than non-Hispanic Whites despite high levels of education and low unemployment prevalence. Arab Americans had reduced odds of alcohol consumption (OR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.24, 0.45), binge drinking (OR: 0.28, 95% CI: 0.19, 0.40), and suicidal ideation (OR: 0.41, 0.25, 0.66) when compared to non-Hispanic Whites in multivariable models. Arab Americans had decreased odds of hypertension (OR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.50, 0.83) and increased odds of diabetes (OR: 2.03, 95% CI: 1.23, 3.34) when compared to non-Hispanic Whites in multivariable models. CONCLUSIONS: Arab Americans in California participate in less risky health behaviors and have better health outcomes than non-Hispanic Whites, except with regards to diabetes. Future work aiming to understand the health of Arab Americans should allow for self-identification and less reliance on country of origin and language use at home for sample selection.

The Health of Arab Americans in the United States: An Updated Comprehensive Literature Review.

Background: Arab Americans are a historically understudied minority group in the United States and their health needs and risks have been poorly documented. We aim to provide an updated comprehensive review of the literature on Arab American physical and mental health and provide suggestions for future work in this field. Methods: A comprehensive review of the English language medical and public health literature published prior to 2017 identified through multiple database searches was conducted with search terms describing Arab Americans and health outcomes and behaviors. The literature was qualitatively summarized by health behavior (vaccination, tobacco use, drug and alcohol use, and physical activity), health outcome (diabetes, mental health, cardiovascular disease, cancer, women's, and child health), and populations at increased risk of poor health outcomes (adolescents and the elderly). Results: The majority of studies identified exploring Arab American health have been published since 2009 with an increase in the number of longitudinal and intervention studies done with this population. The majority of research is being undertaken among individuals living in ethnic enclaves due to the lack of an ethnic or racial identifier that may help identify Arab Americans from population-based studies. Studies highlight the conflicting evidence in the prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular disease based on study sample, an increased understanding of cancer incidence and barriers to identification, and an increased level of knowledge regarding mental health and sexual health needs in the population. Information on health behaviors has also increased, with a better understanding of physical activity, alcohol and drug use, and vaccination. Conclusion: More research on Arab American health is needed to identify risks and needs of this marginalized population given the current social and political climate in the United States, especially with regard to acculturation status and immigrant generation status. We provide recommendations on approaches that may help improve our understanding of Arab American health.

Ineffective insurance in lower and middle income countries is an obstacle to universal health coverage.

BACKGROUND: Recent health policy efforts have sought to promote universal health coverage (UHC) as a means of providing affordable access to health services to populations. However, insurance schemes are heterogeneous, and some schemes may not provide necessary services to those covered. We explored the prevalence and determinants of ineffective insurance across 42 lower and middle income countries (LMICs) from the 2002-2004 World Health Survey. METHODS: Respondents were defined as having ineffective health insurance if they reported being insured and: were forced to borrow or sell personal items to pay for health services; had an untreated chronic condition; or had recently delivered a child outside of a skilled health facility (women only). RESULTS: Among the insured, 13% had ineffective insurance, which was most commonly due to having to borrow or sell to pay for health care. The likelihood of ineffective insurance was lowest in upper-middle income countries and higher in other lower-middle and low-income countries. Ineffective insurance also decreased with family wealth and was higher among rural residents. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that a high proportion of insurance in LMICs is ineffective, particularly among those who need it most, and that attention should be paid to effectiveness when defining health insurance in policy conversations about UHC.

The association between neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and high-risk injection behavior among people who inject drugs.

BACKGROUND: Although much research has been conducted on the determinants of HIV risk behavior among people who inject drugs (PWID), the influence of the neighborhood context on high-risk injection behavior remains understudied. To address this gap in the literature, we measured associations between neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and high-risk injection behavior, and determined whether these associations were modified by drug-related police activity and syringe exchange program (SEP) accessibility. METHODS: Our sample was comprised of 484 pharmacy-recruited PWID in New York City. Measures of neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage were created using data from the 2006-2010 American Community Survey. Associations with high-risk injection behavior were estimated using multivariable Poisson regression. Effect modification by drug-related police activity and SEP accessibility was assessed by entering cross-product terms into adjusted models of high-risk injection behavior. RESULTS: Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with decreased receptive syringe sharing and unsterile syringe use. In neighborhoods with high drug-related police activity, associations between neighborhood disadvantage and unsterile syringe use were attenuated to the null. In neighborhoods with high SEP accessibility, neighborhood disadvantage was associated with decreased acquisition of syringes from an unsafe source. CONCLUSIONS: PWID in disadvantaged neighborhoods reported safer injection behaviors than their counterparts in neighborhoods that were relatively better off. The contrasting patterns of effect modification by SEP accessibility and drug-related police activity support the use of harm reduction approaches over law enforcement-based strategies for the control of blood borne virus transmission among PWID in disadvantaged urban areas.

National income inequality and ineffective health insurance in 35 low- and middle-income countries.

Global health policy efforts to improve health and reduce financial burden of disease in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) has fuelled interest in expanding access to health insurance coverage to all, a movement known as Universal Health Coverage (UHC). Ineffective insurance is a measure of failure to achieve the intended outcomes of health insurance among those who nominally have insurance. This study aimed to evaluate the relation between national-level income inequality and the prevalence of ineffective insurance. We used Standardized World Income Inequality Database (SWIID) Gini coefficients for 35 LMICs and World Health Survey (WHS) data about insurance from 2002 to 2004 to fit multivariable regression models of the prevalence of ineffective insurance on national Gini coefficients, adjusting for GDP per capita. Greater inequality predicted higher prevalence of ineffective insurance. When stratifying by individual-level covariates, higher inequality was associated with greater ineffective insurance among sub-groups traditionally considered more privileged: youth, men, higher education, urban residence and the wealthiest quintile. Stratifying by World Bank country income classification, higher inequality was associated with ineffective insurance among upper-middle income countries but not low- or lower-middle income countries. We hypothesize that these associations may be due to the imprint of underlying social inequalities as countries approach decreasing marginal returns on improved health insurance by income. Our findings suggest that beyond national income, income inequality may predict differences in the quality of insurance, with implications for efforts to achieve UHC.

Social Environments, Genetics, and Black-White Disparities in Infant Mortality.

BACKGROUND: Genes and environments often interplay to produce population health. However, in some instances, the scientific literature has favoured one explanation, underplaying the other, even in the absence of rigorous support. We examine parental race disparity on the risk of infant mortality to see if such an analysis might provide clues to understanding the extent to which genes and environment may shape perinatal risks. METHODS: We assessed parental racial disparities in infant mortality among singletons by analysing the risk of infant mortality among racially consonant vs. dissonant couples over time between 1989-1997 and 1998-2006 in the state of Michigan (n = 1 428 199). We calculated the degree of modification of the relation between maternal race and infant mortality by paternal race dynamically across the two time periods. RESULTS: Infant mortality among interracial couples decreased with time relative to white-white couples, while infant mortality among black-black couples increased with time after adjusting for socio-economic, demographic, and prenatal care differences. The degree to which paternal black race strengthened the relation between maternal black race and higher infant mortality risk relative to white mothers increased with time throughout our study. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence from these data suggests that environmental factors likely play the greater role in explaining the parental race disparity and risk of infant mortality.

Does health insurance mitigate inequities in non-communicable disease treatment? Evidence from 48 low- and middle-income countries.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are the greatest contributor to morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, NCD care is limited in LMICs, particularly among the disadvantaged and rural. We explored the role of insurance in mitigating socioeconomic and urban-rural disparities in NCD treatment across 48 LMICs included in the 2002-2004 World Health Survey (WHS). We analyzed data about ever having received treatment for diagnosed high-burden NCDs (any diagnosis, angina, asthma, depression, arthritis, schizophrenia, or diabetes) or having sold or borrowed to pay for healthcare. We fit multivariable regression models of each outcome by the interaction between insurance coverage and household wealth (richest 20% vs. poorest 50%) and urbanicity, respectively. We found that insurance was associated with higher treatment likelihood for NCDs in LMICs, and helped mitigate socioeconomic and regional disparities in treatment likelihood. These influences were particularly strong among women. Insurance also predicted lower likelihood of borrowing or selling to pay for health services among the poorest women. Taken together, insurance coverage may serve as an important policy tool in promoting NCD treatment and in reducing inequities in NCD treatment by household wealth, urbanicity, and sex in LMICs.

Socioeconomic position, health behaviors, and racial disparities in cause-specific infant mortality in Michigan, USA.

OBJECTIVES: Studies about racial disparities in infant mortality suggest that racial differences in socioeconomic position (SEP) and maternal risk behaviors explain some, but not all, excess infant mortality among Blacks relative to non-Hispanic Whites. We examined the contribution of these to disparities in specific causes of infant mortality. METHODS: We analyzed data about 2,087,191 mother-child dyads in Michigan between 1989 and 2005. First, we calculated crude Black-White infant mortality ratios independently and by specific cause of death. Second, we fit multivariable Poisson regression models of infant mortality, overall and by cause, adjusting for SEP and maternal risk behaviors. Third, Crude Black-White mortality ratios were compared to adjusted predicted probability ratios, overall and by specific cause. RESULTS: SEP and maternal risk behaviors explained nearly a third of the disparity in infant mortality overall, and over 25% of disparities in several specific causes including homicide, accident, sudden infant death syndrome, and respiratory distress syndrome. However, SEP and maternal risk behaviors had little influence on disparities in other specific causes, such as septicemia and congenital anomalies. CONCLUSIONS: These findings help focus policy attention toward disparities in those specific causes of infant mortality most amenable to social and behavioral intervention, as well as research attention to disparities in specific causes unexplained by SEP and behavioral differences.

Racial and insurance based disparities in the treatment of carotid artery stenosis: a study of the Nationwide Inpatient Sample.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Minorities and uninsured/underinsured patients have poorer access to healthcare system resources, especially preventative treatments. We sought to determine whether racial and insurance based disparities existed in the treatment of carotid artery stenosis. METHODS: Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample, hospitalizations for carotid artery stenting and carotid endarterectomy for symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis from 2005 to 2011 were identified. We calculated χ(2) tests, and bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were fit to assess differences in the characteristics of patients receiving carotid revascularization for asymptomatic compared with symptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Demographic characteristics studied included race/ethnicity (white, black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander) and primary payer status (Medicare, Medicaid, private insurance, self-pay and no charge). RESULTS: Between 2005 and 2011, 890 680 patients underwent carotid revascularization for the treatment of carotid artery stenosis (92.1% asymptomatic and 7.9% symptomatic). Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that Medicaid (OR=0.87, 95% CI 0.83 to 0.92, p<0.0001) and self-pay patients (OR=0.48, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.51, p<0.0001) had a lower odds of being revascularized for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis compared with private insurance patients. Black (OR=0.81, 95% CI -0.77 to 0.84, p<0.0001) and Hispanic (OR=0.86, 95% CI -0.83 to 0.90, p<0.0001) patients had significantly lower odds of revascularization for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis compared with white patients. CONCLUSIONS: Minorities and self-pay/Medicaid patients were less likely to receive carotid revascularization when asymptomatic-rather they were more likely to have treatment only after symptoms had developed. These findings suggest possible disparities in the degree of morbidity related to carotid artery stenosis, the likelihood of early detection, and/or the likelihood of treatment conditional on indication.

Trends in the Mexican infant mortality paradox over the past two decades.

PURPOSE: Mexicans in the United States have lower rates of several important population health metrics than non-Hispanic whites, including infant mortality. This mortality advantage is particularly pronounced among infants born to foreign-born Mexican mothers. However, the literature to date has been relegated to point-in-time studies that preclude a dynamic understanding of ethnic and nativity differences in infant mortality among Mexicans and non-Hispanic whites. METHODS: We assessed secular trends in the relation between Mexican ethnicity, maternal nativity, and infant mortality between 1989 and 2006 using a linked birth-death data set from one US state. RESULTS: Congruent to previous research, we found a significant mortality advantage among infants of Mexican relative to non-Hispanic white mothers between 1989 and 1991 after adjustment for baseline demographic differences (relative risk = 0.78, 95% confidence interval, 0.62-0.98). However, because of an upward trend in infant mortality among infants of Mexican mothers, the risk of infant mortality was not significantly different from non-Hispanic white mothers in later periods. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the "Mexican paradox" with respect to infant mortality is resolving. Changing sociocultural norms among Mexican mothers and changes in immigrant selection and immigration processes may explain these observations, suggesting directions for future research.

Disparities in imaging utilization for acute ischemic stroke based on patient insurance status.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown socioeconomic disparities in imaging utilization for both acute and chronic diseases. We studied a nationwide database to determine whether insurance-based disparities exist in the utilization of imaging for acute ischemic stroke. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Inpatients with a primary diagnosis of acute ischemic stroke from November 2005 through December 2011 were identified from the Perspective database. Patients were stratified into four groups according to insurance status as follows: uninsured, Medicaid, Medicare, and private insurance. Utilization rates of head CT, perfusion CT, head MRI, noninvasive head angiography (including head CT angiography [CTA] and head MR angiography [MRA]), noninvasive neck angiography (including neck CTA and neck MRA), carotid ultrasound, and echocardiography were compared using a chi-square test. A multivariable logistic regression model adjusting for potential confounding variables was fit to determine the association between insurance status and imaging utilization. RESULTS: A total of 210,212 patients were included in this study: 10,396 patients (5.0%) were uninsured, 14,243 patients (6.8%) had Medicaid, 153,209 patients (72.9%) had Medicare, and 32,364 patients (15.4%) had private insurance. Even after we had controlled for confounding variables, significant disparities existed in imaging utilization. Compared with patients with private insurance, uninsured patients had significantly lower odds of noninvasive head angiography (odds ratio [OR] = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.74-0.81, p < 0.0001), neck angiography (OR = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.76-0.83, p < 0.0001), and head MRI (OR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.74-0.81, p < 0.0001). The same was true for Medicaid and Medicare patients. CONCLUSION: Disparities exist in the utilization of noninvasive head and neck imaging, MRI, and echocardiography for patients with acute ischemic stroke based on patient insurance status. More research is needed to understand these disparities.

The color of debt: racial disparities in anticipated medical student debt in the United States.

CONTEXT: The cost of American medical education has increased substantially over the past decade. Given racial/ethnic inequalities in access to financial resources, it is plausible that increases in student debt burden resulting from these increases in cost may not be borne equally. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate racial/ethnic disparities in medical student debt. DESIGN SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Authors collected self-reported data from a non-representative sample of 2414 medical students enrolled at 111/159 accredited US medical schools between December 1(st) 2010 and March 27(th) 2011. After weighting for representativeness by race and class year and calculating crude anticipated debt by racial/ethnic category, authors fit multivariable regression models of debt by race/ethnicity adjusted for potential confounders. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Anticipated educational debt upon graduation greater than $150,000. RESULTS: 62.1% of medical students anticipated debt in excess of $150,000 upon graduation. The proportion of Blacks, Whites, Hispanics, and Asians reporting anticipated educational debt in excess of $150,000 was 77.3%, 65.1%, 57.2% and 50.2%, respectively. Both Black and White medical students demonstrated a significantly higher likelihood of anticipated debt in excess of $150,000 when compared to Asians [Blacks (OR=2.7, 1.3-5.6), Whites (OR=1.7, 1.3-2.2)] in adjusted models. CONCLUSION: Black medical students had significantly higher anticipated debt than Asian students. This finding has implications for understanding differential enrollment among minority groups in US medical schools.

Are network-based interventions a useful antiobesity strategy? An application of simulation models for causal inference in epidemiology.

Recent research suggests that social networks may present an avenue for intervention against obesity. By using a simulation model in which artificial individuals were nested in a social network, we assessed whether interventions targeting highly networked individuals could help reduce population obesity. We compared the effects of targeting antiobesity interventions at the most connected individuals in a network with those targeting individuals at random. We tested 2 interventions, the first "preventing" obesity among 10% of the population at simulation outset and the second "treating" obesity among 10% of the obese population yearly, each in 2 separate simulations. One simulation featured a literature-based parameter for the network spread of obesity, and the other featured an artificially high parameter. Interventions that targeted highly networked individuals did not outperform at-random interventions in simulations featuring the literature-based parameter. However, in simulations featuring the artificially high parameter, the targeted prevention intervention outperformed the at-random intervention, whereas the treatment intervention implemented at random outperformed the targeted treatment intervention. Results were qualitatively similar across network topologies and intervention scales. Although descriptive studies suggest that social networks influence the spread of obesity, policies targeting well-connected individuals in social networks may not improve obesity reduction. We highlight and discuss the potential applications of counterfactual simulations in epidemiology.

Infant mortality among Arab-Americans: findings from the Arab-American birth outcomes study.

Arab-Americans (AAs) have lower risk of preterm birth relative to Non-Arab Whites. This has been attributed to lower likelihood of birth out of wedlock, maternal tobacco use during pregnancy, and foreign maternal birthplace among AAs. We were interested in understanding the roles of these and other demographic factors in the etiology of infant mortality among this group. Using data about all live, singleton births between 1989 and 2005 in the state with the highest proportion of AAs in the US, we calculated infant mortality (death prior to 1 year of life) for AAs and Non-Arab Whites. To clarify the etiology of potential differences in infant mortality, we also assessed infant mortality sub-categories, including neonatal mortality (death prior to 28 days of life) and post-neonatal mortality (death between 28 and 365 days of life). We fit trivariable and multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for explanatory covariates to assess each covariate's contributions to the relation between ethnicity and infant mortality. AAs had a lower infant mortality rate (4.7 per 1,000 live births) than non-Arab Whites (5.6 per 1,000 live births), overall (odds ratio = 0.84, 95% confidence interval: 0.74-0.96). In trivariable models, adjusting for marital status, maternal tobacco consumption during pregnancy, and maternal birthplace each separately attenuated the bivariate ethnicity-mortality relation to non-significance. Our findings suggest that lower risk of infant mortality among AAs relative to non-Arab Whites may be explained by differences in demographic characteristics and parental behavioral practices between them.