Current and future trends in socio-economic, demographic and governance factors affecting global primate conservation.

Currently, ~65% of extant primate species (ca 512 species) distributed in 91 countries in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, South Asia and Southeast Asia are threatened with extinction and 75% have declining populations as a result of deforestation and habitat loss resulting from increasing global market demands, and land conversion for industrial agriculture, cattle production and natural resource extraction. Other pressures that negatively impact primates are unsustainable bushmeat hunting, the illegal trade of primates as pets and as body parts, expanding road networks in previously isolated areas, zoonotic disease transmission and climate change. Here we examine current and future trends in several socio-economic factors directly or indirectly affecting primates to further our understanding of the interdependent relationship between human well-being, sustainable development, and primate population persistence. We found that between 2001 and 2018 ca 191 Mha of tropical forest (30% canopy cover) were lost as a result of human activities in the five primate range regions. Forty-six percent of this loss was in the Neotropics (Mexico, Central and South America), 30% in Southeast Asia, 21% in mainland Africa, 2% in Madagascar and 1% in South Asia. Countries with the greatest losses (ca 57% of total tree cover loss) were Brazil, Indonesia, DRC, China, and Malaysia. Together these countries harbor almost 50% of all extant primate species. In 2018, the world human population was estimated at ca 8bn people, ca 60% of which were found in primate range countries. Projections to 2050 and to 2100 indicate continued rapid growth of the human populations in these five primate range regions, with Africa surpassing all the other regions and totaling ca 4bn people by the year 2100. Socioeconomic indicators show that, compared to developed nations, most primate range countries are characterized by high levels of poverty and income inequality, low human development, low food security, high levels of corruption and weak governance. Models of Shared Socioeconomic Pathway scenarios (SSPs) projected to 2050 and 2100 showed that whereas practices of increasing inequality (SSP4) or unconstrained growth in economic output and energy use (SSP5) are projected to have dire consequences for human well-being and primate survivorship, practices of sustainability-focused growth and equality (SSP1) are expected to have a positive effect on maintaining biodiversity, protecting environments, and improving the human condition. These results stress that improving the well-being, health, and security of the current and future human populations in primate range countries are of paramount importance if we are to move forward with effective policies to protect the world's primate species and promote biodiversity conservation.

Primates in peril: the significance of Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for global primate conservation.

Primates occur in 90 countries, but four-Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)-harbor 65% of the world's primate species (439) and 60% of these primates are Threatened, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017-3). Considering their importance for global primate conservation, we examine the anthropogenic pressures each country is facing that place their primate populations at risk. Habitat loss and fragmentation are main threats to primates in Brazil, Madagascar, and Indonesia. However, in DRC hunting for the commercial bushmeat trade is the primary threat. Encroachment on primate habitats driven by local and global market demands for food and non-food commodities hunting, illegal trade, the proliferation of invasive species, and human and domestic-animal borne infectious diseases cause habitat loss, population declines, and extirpation. Modeling agricultural expansion in the 21st century for the four countries under a worst-case-scenario, showed a primate range contraction of 78% for Brazil, 72% for Indonesia, 62% for Madagascar, and 32% for DRC. These pressures unfold in the context of expanding human populations with low levels of development. Weak governance across these four countries may limit effective primate conservation planning. We examine landscape and local approaches to effective primate conservation policies and assess the distribution of protected areas and primates in each country. Primates in Brazil and Madagascar have 38% of their range inside protected areas, 17% in Indonesia and 14% in DRC, suggesting that the great majority of primate populations remain vulnerable. We list the key challenges faced by the four countries to avert primate extinctions now and in the future. In the short term, effective law enforcement to stop illegal hunting and illegal forest destruction is absolutely key. Long-term success can only be achieved by focusing local and global public awareness, and actively engaging with international organizations, multinational businesses and consumer nations to reduce unsustainable demands on the environment. Finally, the four primate range countries need to ensure that integrated, sustainable land-use planning for economic development includes the maintenance of biodiversity and intact, functional natural ecosystems.

Examining for an association between candidate gene polymorphisms in the metabolic syndrome components on excess weight and adiposity measures in youth: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: A polymorphism in a gene may exert its effects on multiple phenotypes. The aim of this study is to explore the association of 10 metabolic syndrome candidate genes with excess weight and adiposity and evaluate the effect of perinatal and socioeconomic factors on these associations. METHODS: The anthropometry, socioeconomic and perinatal conditions and 10 polymorphisms were evaluated in 1081 young people between 10 and 18 years old. Genotypic associations were calculated using logistic and linear models adjusted by age, gender, and pubertal maturation, and a genetic risk score (GRS) was calculated by summing the number of effect alleles. RESULTS: We found that AGT-rs699 and the IRS2-rs1805097 variants were significantly associated with excess weight, OR = 1.25 (CI 95% 1.01-1.54; p = 0.034); OR = 0.77 (CI 95% 0.62-0.96; p = 0.022), respectively. AGT-rs699 and FTO-rs17817449 variants were significantly and directly associated with body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.036 and p = 0.031), while IRS2-rs1805097 and UCP3-rs1800849 were significantly and negatively associated with BMI and waist circumference, correspondingly. Each additional effect allele in GRS was associated with an increase of 0.020 log(BMI) (p = 0.004). No effects from the socioeconomic and perinatal factors evaluated on the association of the candidate genes with the phenotypes were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Our observation suggests that AGT-rs699 and FTO-rs17817449 variants may contribute to the risk development of excess weight and an increase in the BMI, while IRS2-rs1805097 showed a protector effect; in addition, UCP3- rs1800849 showed a decreasing waist circumference. Socioeconomic and perinatal factors had no effect on the associations of the candidate gene.

The effects of socioeconomic status and short stature on overweight, obesity and the risk of metabolic complications in adults / Los efectos del estatus socioeconómico y la talla baja sobre el sobrepeso, la obesidad y el riesgo de complicaciones metabólicas en adultos

Abstract Objective: to observe the relationship between socioeconomic status, height and nutritional problems related to obesity, overweight and risk of metabolic complications in men and women of Medellin (Colombia). Methods: cross-sectional study with a sample of 5,556 adults between 18 and 69 years of age. We assessed weight, height and waist circumference. Socioeconomic variables were evaluated by family income, socioeconomic stratum and academic level achieved. Results: we found that in men and women the height reached in adulthood is associated with socioeconomic conditions as measured by the socioeconomic strata and family income. In women, height, age, and socioeconomic strata are associated with obesity, overweight and risk of obesity, and risk of metabolic complications. Conclusion: These results are not only from individual unhealthy habits, such as eating patterns based on high density foods combined with low energy expenditure, but also from the cumulative effect of food deprivation throughout life. Therefore, policies intended to prevent them should take a preventive approach that begins before birth and continues during childhood and adulthood.

Resumen Objetivo: Observar las relaciones entre estatus socioeconómico, estatura y problemas nutricionales de sobrepeso, obesidad, riesgo de complicaciones metabólicas en hombres y mujeres de Medellín. Métodos: estudio transversal, descriptivo con una muestra de 5,556 adultos con edades entre 18 y 69 años. Se evaluaron peso, estatura y perímetro de cintura. Como variables socioeconómicas se evaluaron los ingresos familiares, el estrato socioeconómico y el nivel educativo. Resultados: Se encontró que en hombres y mujeres la estatura alcanzada está asociada con las condiciones socioeconómicas medidas por estrato e ingresos familiares. En las mujeres la estatura alcanzada, la edad y el estrato están asociados con la obesidad, el sobrepeso y los riesgos de complicaciones metabólicas. Conclusión: la obesidad, el sobrepeso y el riesgo de complicaciones metabólicas en la adultez son el resultado no solo de hábitos individuales no saludables como patrón alimentario basado en alimentos altamente energéticos, sumado a bajo gasto calórico, sino también a una acumulación de privaciones alimentarias a lo largo de la vida y deben ser intervenidas antes del nacimiento y durante la infancia y la adultez.

Socioeconomic contexts of primate conservation: population, poverty, global economic demands, and sustainable land use.

Recent assessments by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) indicate the existence of about 612 recognized primate species and subspecies (IUCN RedList, 2012), but close to 50% of these taxa are at risk of extinction as a result of human action. In this article, I call attention to underlying regional and global socioeconomic contexts of primate conservation. Using information from FAO and UN databases and other sources, I examine, for the Neotropics, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia, trends in forest loss and human demographics and social condition, discuss the impact of global market pressures upon primate habitats, and examine land-use patterns that may favor primate conservation. Between 1990 and 2010, an estimated 149 million ha of forest were lost in the three regions and additional losses are expected in the future. Global human population will increase from 7 billion in 2012 to 9 billion in 2050. Currently, 2 billion people live in the three primate range regions under high levels of poverty. Large-scale deforestation is related to global market demands, especially from developed and developing nations, for food (e.g., cattle), domestic animal feed (e.g., soybeans), biofuel-based crops (e.g., oil palm), and industrial round wood. The growth of protected areas in the three regions has been steady for several decades, but it is not enough to ensure long-term conservation of many primate taxa. Other conservations tools involving sustainable land use and biodiversity conservation corridors are required at the landscape level. The above assessment can easily be applied at the local level by primatologists, giving more precision to conservation initiatives.

[Body composition assessment by anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance]. / Evaluación de la composición corporal de adultos sanos por antropometría e impedancia bioeléctrica.

INTRODUCTION: Anthropometry and electric impedance methods are widely used for body composition assessment. However the evidence is unclear whether the results obtained from the two methods can be compared. OBJECTIVE: Two methods are compared for assessment of body composition; anthropometry and electric impedance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Body composition was measured in 70 women; aged 22 to 56 and 53 men; aged 24 to 54, using anthropometry (Durning/Womersley and Jackson/Pollock skinfolds equations) and electric impedance (foot to foot electric impedance) to obtain percentage body fat. RESULTS: The mean percentage body fat was significant higher with Durning/Womersley (25.2%) than Jackson/Pollock (20.1%) and electric impedance (19.3%) for men (p<0.001). The mean percentage body fat was significant higher with Durning/Womersley (36.9%) than Jackson/Pollock (31.0%) and electric impedance (27.6%) for women (p<0.001). Correlation coefficient was high when two methods were compared (r>0.77) however, the concordance between methods to classify obesity subjects was low (K<0.5). CONCLUSIONS: The percentages obtained from the anthropometry method were higher than the bioelectrical impedance method. A significant difference was found between methods applied in men and women, and therefore these methods are not comparable.

[Quality of life and health conditions of the elderly population of Medellin]. / Calidad de vida y condiciones de salud de la población adulta mayor de Medellín.

INTRODUCTION: The process of aging presents functional limitations, loss of autonomy, independence, adaptability and motor disfunction. These changes raise challenges and concerns of vital importance both for those individuals who face them and for government organizations, thus motivating inquiry about the life and health conditions of the elderly. OBJECTIVE: To describe some components of the quality of life of the elderly population (aged 65 years or older) living in Medellin, including socio-demographic, family, social security and health conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A descriptive study was conducted using the following sources of information: a survey of quality of life that was carried out in 1997 and 2001; death certificates from 1990 to 1999; hospital discharge records from 1990 to 1997; and a telephone survey carried out in the year 2002 in 637 randomly selected elderly individuals. RESULTS: A 168% increase occurred in this population group from 1964 to 2001, substantiating the stage of demographic transition throughout the city. The 65% loss of purchasing power observed between 1997 to 2001 and the situation of isolation in which the elderly population lives, characterize its loss of independence and self-esteem. CONCLUSION: 97% of the quality of life in the elderly population of Medellin was explained by the following components: independence, social and economic security, and networks of social support.

Calidad de vida y condiciones de salud de la población adulta mayor de Medellín / Quality of life and health conditions of the elderly population of Medellin

Introducción. El proceso de envejecimiento presenta limitaciones funcionales, pérdida de autonomía y de independencia, de adaptabilidad y disfuncionalidad motriz, las cuales plantean retos y preocupaciones de vital importancia tanto para quienes las viven como para los organismos gubernamentales y que llevan a preguntarse cuáles son las condiciones de vida y de salud de la población adulta mayor. Objetivo. Caracterizar algunos componentes de la calidad de vida: económicos, familiares, socio-demográficos, de seguridad social y de condiciones de salud de la población adulta mayor (de 65 años o más) en la ciudad de Medellín. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo con base en la información proveniente de la Encuesta de Calidad de Vida realizada en la ciudad en los años 1997 y 2001; los certificados de defunción de 1990 a 1999; los registros de egresos hospitalarios de 1990 a 1997, y una encuesta telefónica en el año 2002 a 637 adultos mayores seleccionados sistemáticamente. Resultados. Se observó un incremento de 168 por ciento en este grupo poblacional desde 1964 a 2001, evidenciando la etapa de transición demográfica plena que vive la ciudad. También se observó una pérdida de poder adquisitivo de 65 por ciento entre 1997 y 2001, así como la situación de aislamiento en que viven los ancianos, lo que marca la pérdida de independencia y autoestima. Conclusión. Los componentes de independencia, seguridad socioeconómica y redes de apoyo social constituyen el 97 por ciento de la calidad de vida del adulto mayor de la ciudad.

Primates as pets in Mexico City: an assessment of the species involved, source of origin, and general aspects of treatment.

The large human populations in cities are an important source of demand for wildlife pets, including primates, and not much is known about the primate species involved in terms of their general origin, the length of time they are kept as pets, and some of the maintenance problems encountered with their use as pets. We report the results of a survey conducted in Mexico City among primate pet owners, which was aimed at providing some of the above information. We used an ethnographic approach, and pet owners were treated as informants to gain their trust so that we could enter their homes and learn about the life of their primate pets. We surveyed 179 owners of primate pets, which included 12 primate species. Of these, three were native species (Ateles geoffroyi, Alouatta pigra, and A. palliata). The rest were other neotropical primate species not native to Mexico, and some paleotropical species. Spider monkeys and two species of howler monkeys native to Mexico accounted for 67% and 15%, respectively, of the primate cases investigated. The most expensive primate pets were those imported from abroad, while the least expensive were the Mexican species. About 45% of the native primate pets were obtained by their owners in a large market in Mexico City, and the rest were obtained in southern Mexico. Although they can provide companionship for children and adults, primate pets are subject to a number of hazards, some of which put their lives at risk. The demand by city dwellers for primate pets, along with habitat destruction and fragmentation, exerts a significant pressure on wild populations in southern Mexico.

Impacto de la reforma colombiana de la seguridad social sobre la dinámica y características del aseguramiento en salud / Impact of the Colombian reform of social security on the dynamics and characteristics of health insurance

Uno de los objetivos más importantes de la reforma de la seguridad social en salud de 1993 consistió en aumentar rápidamente la cobertura en salud, que se calculaba en el 75 por ciento antes de la reforma. La meta propuesta pretendía lograr la cobertura total en el año 2001, para lo cual se introdujeron cambios importantes en los mecanismos de aseguramiento y financiación, que indujeran a que una mayor proporción de la población accediera a los servicios por medio del aseguramiento mediante aportes hechos con base en los ingresos y se disminuyera la proporción de la población que accedería a los servicios mediante el subsidio oficial.Estos cambios se inscriben en el conjunto de transformaciones institucionales que el gobierno y los grupos dirigentes desencadenaron desde comienzos de la década de los 90, bajo el auspicio de doctrinas económicas y sociales que reclaman restarle dinamismo a la interverción del estado en la orientación de la economía y la asignación de los recursos sociales.El objetivo de esta investigación consistió en determinar la evolución de la cobertura lograda por el sistema de seguridad social en salud en todo el país entre 1995 y 1998, así como algunas características de dicha cobertura. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo- retrospectivo utilizando técnicas de investigación documental cualitativas y cuantitativas para caracterizar la dinámica del aseguramiento en salud de la población y descubrir algunas características de ese aseguramiento.Los resultados muestran que la cobertura lograda por el sistema hasta julio de 1998 por medio de sus dos régimenes era de 49,1 por ciento de la población del país (18,3 por ciento con el régimen subsidiado y 30,8 por ciento con el régimen contributivo), logro que dista mucho de la meta de cobertura universal propuesta para el año 2001. Así mismo se encontraron indicadores de que persisten grandes inequidades en el aseguramiento, cuando se comparan las regiones del país y los grupos etáreos