Health service and medication costs associated with common mental disorders and subthreshold symptoms in women: Findings from the Geelong Osteoporosis Study in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This analysis estimated 2013 annual healthcare costs associated with the common mental disorders of mood and anxiety disorders and psychological symptoms within a representative sample of Australian women. METHODS: Data from the 15-year follow-up of women in the Geelong Osteoporosis Study were linked to 12-month Medicare Benefits Schedule and Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme data. A Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Non-patient edition identified common mental disorders and the General Health Questionnaire 12 assessed psychological symptoms. Participants were categorised into mutually exclusive groups: (1) common mental disorder (past 12 months), (2) subthreshold (no common mental disorder and General Health Questionnaire 12 score ⩾4) or (3) no common mental disorder and General Health Questionnaire 12 score <4. Two-part and hurdle models estimated differences in service use, and adjusted generalised linear models estimated mean differences in costs between groups. RESULTS: Compared to no common mental disorder, women with common mental disorders utilised more Medicare Benefits Schedule services (mean 26.9 vs 20.0, p < 0.001), had higher total Medicare Benefits Schedule cost ($1889 vs $1305, p < 0.01), received more Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme prescriptions (35.8 vs 20.6, p < 0.001), had higher total Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme cost ($1226 vs $740, p < 0.05) and had significantly higher annual out-of-pocket costs for Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme prescriptions ($249 vs $162, p < 0.001). Compared to no common mental disorder, subthreshold women were less likely to use any Medicare Benefits Schedule service (89.6% vs 97.0%, p < 0.01), but more likely to use mental health services (11.4% vs 2.9%, p < 0.01). The subthreshold group received more Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme prescriptions (mean 43.3 vs 20.6, p < 0.001) and incurred higher total Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme cost ($1268 vs $740, p < .05) compared to no common mental disorder. CONCLUSIONS: Common mental disorders and subthreshold psychological symptoms place a substantial economic burden on Australian healthcare services and consumers.

The Cost-Effectiveness of a Novel Online Social Therapy to Maintain Treatment Effects From First-Episode Psychosis Services: Results From the Horyzons Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Digital interventions have potential applications in promoting long-term recovery and improving outcomes in first-episode psychosis (FEP). This study aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of Horyzons, a novel online social therapy to support young people aged 16-27 years following discharge from FEP services, compared with treatment as usual (TAU) from a healthcare sector and a societal perspective. STUDY DESIGN: A cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), based on the change in social functioning, and a cost-utility analysis (CUA) using quality-adjusted life years were undertaken alongside a randomized controlled trial. Intervention costs were determined from study records; resources used by patients were collected from a resource-use questionnaire and administrative data. Mean costs and outcomes were compared at 18 months and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were calculated. Uncertainty analysis using bootstrapping and sensitivity analyses was conducted. STUDY RESULTS: The sample included 170 participants: Horyzons intervention group (n = 86) and TAU (n = 84). Total costs were significantly lower in the Horyzons group compared with TAU from both the healthcare sector (-AU$4789.59; P < .001) and the societal perspective (-AU$5131.14; P < .001). In the CEA, Horyzons was dominant, meaning it was less costly and resulted in better social functioning. In the CUA, the Horyzons intervention resulted in fewer costs but also yielded fewer QALYs. However, group differences in outcomes were not statistically significant. When young people engaged more with the platform, costs were shown to decrease and outcomes improved. CONCLUSIONS: The Horyzons intervention offers a cost-effective approach for improving social functioning in young people with FEP after discharge from early intervention services.

Economic evidence for prevention and treatment of eating disorders: An updated systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review updates an existing review examining the cost-effectiveness of interventions to prevent and treat eating disorders (EDs). METHOD: Literature search was conducted in Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EconLit, Global Health, ERIC, Health Business Elite, and Health Policy Reference Center electronic databases, capturing studies published between March 2017 to April 2023. Hand-searching was conducted as supplementary including gray literature search. Included articles were (1) full economic evaluations or return-on-investment studies, (2) in English and (3) aimed at prevention and treatment of any ED. Included studies were added and synthesized with previously reviewed studies. Screening and extraction followed PRISMA guidelines. Quality assessment was conducted using the Drummond checklist. PROSPERO registration CRD42021287464. RESULTS: A total of 28 studies were identified, including 15 published after the previous review. There were nine prevention, seven anorexia nervosa (AN) treatment, five bulimia nervosa (BN) treatment, four binge-eating disorder (BED), and three non-specific ED treatment studies. Findings indicate value-for-money evidence supporting all interventions. Quality assessment showed studies were fair-to-good quality. DISCUSSION: There has been significant growth in cost-effectiveness studies over the last 5 years. Findings suggest that interventions to prevent and treat ED offer value for money. Interventions such as Featback (ED prevention and non-specific ED treatment); focal psychodynamic therapy, enhanced cognitive behavioral therapy, and high-calorie refeeding (AN treatment); stepped-care with assisted self-help and internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (BN treatment); and cognitive behavioral therapy guided self-help intervention (BED treatment) have good quality economic evidence. Further research in implementation of interventions is required. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The increasing prevalence of ED globally has significant impact on healthcare systems, families, and society. This review is showcasing the value for money of interventions of eating disorders prevention and treatment. This review found that existing interventions offers positive economic benefit for the healthcare system.

OBJETIVO: Esta revisión sistemática actualiza una revisión existente que examina la rentabilidad de las intervenciones para prevenir y tratar los trastornos de la conducta alimentaria (TCA). MÉTODO: Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica en las bases de datos electrónicas Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EconLit, Global Health, ERIC, Health Business Elite y Health Policy Reference Center, abarcando estudios publicados entre marzo de 2017 y abril de 2023. Se realizó una búsqueda manual como complemento, incluyendo la búsqueda de literatura gris. Los artículos incluidos eran (1) evaluaciones económicas completas o estudios de retorno de inversión, (2) en inglés y (3) dirigidos a la prevención y tratamiento de cualquier TCA. Los estudios incluidos se añadieron y sintetizaron con estudios previamente revisados. El cribado y la extracción siguieron las pautas PRISMA. La evaluación de la calidad se realizó utilizando la lista de verificación de Drummond. Registro en PROSPERO CRD42021287464. RESULTADOS: Se identificaron 28 estudios, incluyendo 15 publicados después de la revisión anterior. Hubo nueve estudios de prevención, siete de tratamiento de anorexia nerviosa (AN), cinco de tratamiento de bulimia nerviosa (BN), cuatro de trastorno por atracón (TpA) y tres de tratamiento de TCA no especificados. Los hallazgos indican evidencia de valor por dinero que respalda todas las intervenciones. La evaluación de la calidad mostró que los estudios eran de calidad aceptable a buena. DISCUSIÓN: Ha habido un crecimiento significativo en los estudios de rentabilidad en los últimos cinco años. Los hallazgos sugieren que las intervenciones para prevenir y tratar los TCA ofrecen valor por dinero. Intervenciones como Featback (prevención de TCA y tratamiento de TCA no específicos); terapia psicodinámica focal, terapia cognitivo-conductual mejorada y rehabilitación nutricional con alto contenido calórico (tratamiento de AN); atención escalonada con autoayuda asistida y terapia cognitivo-conductual en línea (tratamiento de BN); y terapia cognitivo-conductual guiada de autoayuda (tratamiento de TpA) tienen una buena evidencia económica de calidad. Se requiere más investigación en la implementación de intervenciones.

A systematic review of economic evaluations for opioid misuse, cannabis and illicit drug use prevention.

BACKGROUND: Substance use disorders negatively affect global disease burden. Effective preventive interventions are available, but whether they provide value for money is unclear. AIMS: This review looks at the cost-effectiveness evidence of preventive interventions for cannabis use, opioid misuse and illicit drug use. METHOD: Literature search was undertaken in Medline, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EconLit through EBSCOhost and EMBASE, up to May 2021. Grey literature search was conducted as supplement. Studies included were full economic evaluations or return-on-investment (ROI) analyses for preventing opioid misuse, cannabis and illicit drug use. English-language restriction was used. Outcomes extracted were incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) or ROI ratios, with costs presented in 2019 United States dollars. Quality was assessed with the Drummond checklist. RESULTS: Eleven full economic evaluation studies were identified from 5674 citations, with all studies conducted in high-income countries. Most aimed to prevent opioid misuse (n = 4), cannabis (n = 3) or illicit drug use (n = 5). Modelling was the predominant methodology (n = 7). Five evaluated school-based universal interventions targeting children and adolescents (aged <18 years). Five cost-benefit studies reported cost-savings. One cost-effectiveness and two cost-utility analysis studies supported the cost-effectiveness of interventions, as ICERs fell under prespecified value-for-money thresholds. CONCLUSIONS: There are limited economic evaluations of preventive interventions for opioid misuse, cannabis and illicit drug use. Family-based intervention (ParentCorps), school-based interventions (Social and Emotional Training and Project ALERT) and a doctor's programme to assess patient risk of misusing narcotics ('the Network System to Prevent Doctor-Shopping for Narcotics') show promising cost-effectiveness and warrant consideration.

Interventions to prevent alcohol use: systematic review of economic evaluations.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use is a leading risk factor for death and disability worldwide. AIMS: We conducted a systematic review on the cost-effectiveness evidence for interventions to prevent alcohol use across the lifespan. METHOD: Electronic databases (EMBASE, Medline, PsycINFO, CINAHL and EconLit) were searched for full economic evaluations and return-on-investment studies of alcohol prevention interventions published up to May 2021. The methods and results of included studies were evaluated with narrative synthesis, and study quality was assessed by the Drummond ten-point checklist. RESULTS: A total of 69 studies met the inclusion criteria for a full economic evaluation or return-on-investment study. Most studies targeted adults or a combination of age groups, seven studies comprised children/adolescents and one involved older adults. Half of the studies found that alcohol prevention interventions are cost-saving (i.e. more effective and less costly than the comparator). This was especially true for universal prevention interventions designed to restrict exposure to alcohol through taxation or advertising bans; and selective/indicated prevention interventions, which involve screening with or without brief intervention for at-risk adults. School-based interventions combined with parent/carer interventions were cost-effective in preventing alcohol use among those aged under 18 years. No interventions were cost-effective for preventing alcohol use in older adults. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol prevention interventions show promising evidence of cost-effectiveness. Further economic analyses are needed to facilitate policy-making in low- and middle-income countries, and among child, adolescent and older adult populations.

Economic evaluation of a Decision Support Tool to guide intensity of mental health care in general practice: the Link-me pragmatic randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: This paper reports on the cost-effectiveness evaluation of Link-me - a digitally supported, systematic approach to triaging care for depression and anxiety in primary care that uses a patient-completed Decision Support Tool (DST). METHODS: The economic evaluation was conducted alongside a parallel, stratified individually randomised controlled trial (RCT) comparing prognosis-matched care to usual care at six- and 12-month follow-up. Twenty-three general practices in three Australian Primary Health Networks recruited 1,671 adults (aged 18 - 75 years), predicted by the DST to have minimal/mild or severe depressive or anxiety symptoms in three months. The minimal/mild prognostic group was referred to low intensity services. Participants screened in the severe prognostic group were offered high intensity care navigation, a model of care coordination. The outcome measures included in this evaluation were health sector costs (including development and delivery of the DST, care navigation and other healthcare services used) and societal costs (health sector costs plus lost productivity), psychological distress [Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10)] and quality adjusted life years (QALYs) derived from the EuroQol 5-dimension quality of life questionnaire with Australian general population preference weights applied. Costs were valued in 2018-19 Australian dollars (A$). RESULTS: Across all participants, the health sector incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of Link-me per point decrease in K10 at six months was estimated at $1,082 (95% CI $391 to $6,204) increasing to $2,371 (95% CI $191 to Dominated) at 12 months. From a societal perspective, the ICER was estimated at $1,257/K10 point decrease (95% CI Dominant to Dominated) at six months, decreasing to $1,217 (95% CI Dominant to Dominated) at 12 months. No significant differences in QALYs were detected between trial arms and the intervention was dominated (less effective, more costly) based on the cost/QALY ICER. CONCLUSIONS: The Link-me approach to stepped mental health care would not be considered cost-effective utilising a cost/QALY outcome metric commonly adopted by health technology assessment agencies. Rather, Link-me showed a trend toward cost-effectiveness by providing improvement in mental health symptoms, measured by the K10, at an additional cost. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ANZCTRN 12617001333303.