High Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Patients With Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Developing Countries: Results From the International Diabetes Management Practices Study.

OBJECTIVE: Depression is common in people with diabetes, but data from developing countries are scarce. We evaluated the prevalence and risk factors for depressive symptoms in patients with diabetes using data from the International Diabetes Management Practices Study (IDMPS). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: IDMPS is an ongoing multinational, cross-sectional study investigating quality of care in patients with diabetes in real-world settings. Data from wave 5 (2011), including 21 countries, were analyzed using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to evaluate depressive symptoms. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify risk factors of depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Of 9,865 patients eligible for analysis, 2,280 had type 1 and 7,585 had type 2 diabetes (treatment: oral glucose-lowering drugs [OGLD] only, n = 4,729; OGLDs plus insulin, n = 1,892; insulin only, n = 964). Depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 score ≥5) were reported in 30.7% of those with type 1 diabetes. In patients with type 2 diabetes, the respective figures were 29.0% for OGLDs-only, 36.6% for OGLDs-plus-insulin, and 46.7% for insulin-only subgroups. Moderate depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 score 10-19) were observed in 8-16% of patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Female sex, complications, and low socioeconomic status were independently associated with depressive symptoms. In type 1 diabetes and in the type 2 diabetes OGLDs-only group, depression was associated with poor glycemic control. CONCLUSIONS: Depressive symptoms are common in patients with diabetes from developing countries, calling for routine screening, especially in high-risk groups, to reduce the double burden of diabetes and depression and their negative interaction.

Diabetes education and health insurance: How they affect the quality of care provided to people with type 1 diabetes in Latin America. Data from the International Diabetes Mellitus Practices Study (IDMPS).

AIMS: This study aimed to evaluate the impact of diabetes education and access to healthcare coverage on disease management and outcomes in Latin America. METHODS: Data were obtained from a sub-analysis of 2693 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus recruited from 9 Latin American countries as part of the International Diabetes Mellitus Practices Study (IDMPS), a multinational, observational survey of diabetes treatment in developing regions. RESULTS: Results from the Latin American cohort show that only 25% of participants met HbA1c target value (< 7% [53 mmol/mol]). Attainment of this target was significantly higher among participants who had received diabetes education than those who hadn't (28% vs. 19%, p < 0.001), and among those who practiced self-management (27% vs. 21% no self-management, p = 0.001). Multivariate analysis showed that participants who had received diabetes education were more likely to manage their diabetes (OR:1.65 [95% CI: 1.24, 2.19]; p = 0.001), and to attain HbA1c target values (OR:1.48 [95% CI: 1.14, 1.93]; p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Given the association between uncontrolled diabetes and long-term complications, health authorities and care providers should increase efforts to ensure widespread healthcare coverage and access to self-management education to reduce the socioeconomic and humanistic burden of type 1 diabetes.

Health inequalities and the impact on the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and chronic complications in Argentina: a study on national risk factors surveys. / Desigualdades en salud, su impacto sobre la prevalencia de factores de riesgo cardiovascular y el desarrollo de sus complicaciones crónicas en Argentina: estudio sobre Encuesta Nacional de Factores de Riesgo.

BACKGROUND: In Argentina, there is evidence of health inequalities, measured both at the general level and also using income as a parameter of social status. However, few studies address the issue of health equality in chronic diseases such as cardiovascular risk factors. OBJECTIVE: To describe health inequalities, using cardiovascular risk factors as a tracer for chronic diseases in different areas of the country and over time. In addition, we aim to identify differences in the quality of care provided to people with cardiovascular risk factors, between 2005 and 2009. METHODS: This is an observational study, which used descriptive and quantitative methods. Data from the National Risk Factors Survey from 2005 and 2009 in the cohorts who have chronic diseases (hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia and overweight/obesity) were analyzed to assess associations between health status and several demographic, epidemiological and socioeconomic variables. Additionally, clinical and metabolic characteristics of people with diabetes and other cardiovascular risks factors were analyzed in 2005 and 2009 using the database Quality of Diabetes Care (QUALIDIAB). RESULTS: Cardiovascular risk factors are more frequent in people with lower socioeconomic status, regardless of the indicator. The inequalities detected showed the worst indicators in strata with lower education and income, with the same results both nationwide and separated by region. This inequalities were more pronounced in 2009, and their magnitude changed by region and cardiovascular risk factor. From 2005 to 2009, body mass index, blood glucose and HbA1c value increased. In contrast, both systolic blood pressure and triglycerides decreased, with no significant changes in total cholesterol and diastolic blood pressure. CONCLUSION: Cardiovascular risk factors present inequalities attributed to social status manifesting at both national and regional levels.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Argentina muestra evidencia de desigualdades en salud medida, tanto a nivel general como utilizando el ingreso como parámetro de posición social. Sin embargo, pocos estudios abordan la problemática de la equidad en salud a nivel de enfermedades crónicas como los factores de riesgo cardiovascular. OBJETIVO: Describir las desigualdades en salud utilizando como trazador de enfermedades crónicas a los factores de riesgo cardiovascular a nivel subnacional y su evolución temporal. Para complementar, se busca identificar las diferencias en la calidad de atención brindada a personas con factores de riesgo cardiovascular entre 2005 y 2009. MÉTODOS: Estudio observacional y cuantitativo basado en métodos descriptivos. Se analizó la Encuesta Nacional de Factores de Riesgo 2005 y 2009 para evaluar hipertensión, diabetes, dislipemia y sobrepeso/obesidad en las cohortes correspondientes, las asociaciones entre el estado de salud y diversas variables demográficas, epidemiológicas y socioeconómicas. Adicionalmente, y utilizando la base de datos del registro Quality of Diabetes Care (QUALIDIAB), se analizaron las características clínicas y metabólicas de las personas con diabetes y otros factores de riesgo cardiovascular en los años 2005 y 2009. RESULTADOS: Los factores de riesgo cardiovascular se presentan más frecuentemente en personas con menor posición socioeconómica, independientemente del indicador considerado. Las desigualdades detectadas mostraron peores indicadores en los estratos con educación e ingreso más bajo, manifestándose tanto a nivel nacional como regional. En general, son más acentuadas en el año 2009. Su magnitud varió según región y factor de riesgo cardiovascular considerado. De 2005 a 2009, se incrementan los valores de índice de masa corporal, glucemia y hemoglobina glicosilada, disminuyeron los de presión arterial sistólica y los triglicéridos, sin cambios significativos en el colesterol total y presión arterial diastólica. CONCLUSIONES: En nuestro medio, los factores de riesgo cardiovascular presentan desigualdades condicionadas por su posición social, manifestándose tanto a nivel nacional como regional.

Relation between cost of drug treatment and body mass index in people with type 2 diabetes in Latin America.

AIMS: Despite the frequent association of obesity with type 2 diabetes (T2D), the effect of the former on the cost of drug treatment of the latest has not been specifically addressed. We studied the association of overweight/obesity on the cost of drug treatment of hyperglycemia, hypertension and dyslipidemia in a population with T2D. METHODS: This observational study utilized data from the QUALIDIAB database on 3,099 T2D patients seen in Diabetes Centers in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. Data were grouped according to body mass index (BMI) as Normal (18.5≤BMI<25), Overweight (25≤BMI<30), and Obese (BMI≥30). Thereafter, we assessed clinical and metabolic data and cost of drug treatment in each category. Statistical analyses included group comparisons for continuous variables (parametric or non-parametric tests), Chi-square tests for differences between proportions, and multivariable regression analysis to assess the association between BMI and monthly cost of drug treatment. RESULTS: Although all groups showed comparable degree of glycometabolic control (FBG, HbA1c), we found significant differences in other metabolic control indicators. Total cost of drug treatment of hyperglycemia and associated cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) increased significantly (p<0.001) with increment of BMI. Hyperglycemia treatment cost showed a significant increase concordant with BMI whereas hypertension and dyslipidemia did not. Despite different values and percentages of increase, this growing cost profile was reproduced in every participating country. BMI significantly and independently affected hyperglycemia treatment cost. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows for the first time that BMI significantly increases total expenditure on drugs for T2D and its associated CVRF treatment in Latin America.

[Education of people with type 2 diabetes through peers with diabetes: is it cost effective?]. / Educación de personas con diabetes tipo 2: ¿es costo-efectiva su implementación a través de pares con diabetes?

INTRODUCTION: Inadequate quality of care provided to people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, generates a significant socioeconomic burden and a serious public health problem. Diabetes education through peers with diabetes is an alternative to that provided by professional educators (traditional education) which achieves non-inferior results. However, there is little evidence of cost-effectiveness of education trough peers over traditional education. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate cost-effectiveness of education of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, during a year, by a team of professional educators (traditional education) versus education and support delivered by trained peers with diabetes. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis based on a randomized prospective clinical study conducted in the city of La Plata, including 199 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, divided in two groups:, one receiving traditional education and another receiving the same education but delivered by peer educators with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Change in glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) was considered as a primary indicator of effectiveness and secondary indicators were others, such as body mass index, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The direct cost of each strategy was estimated based on resources used in the trial, evaluating three cost scenarios for peer education. The strength of the results was assessed by univariate sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: Cost per unit decrease (%) in HbA1c: traditional education: $2 621; peer education: $1 508, $1 779 y $2 071 for each of the three scenarios considered (scenario 1, scenario 2, scenario 3), respectively. For each $100 invested a decrease of 0.04% in the HbA1c with traditional education was achieved; and 0.07% in scenario 1; 0.06% in scenario 2 and 0.05% in scenario 3, with education delivered by peer educators. Sensitivity analysis showed the strength of the results. CONCLUSION: Education of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients through peers as a complement to control and treatment of the disease, is cost-effective compared to traditional education.

INTRODUCCIÓN : La inadecuada calidad de atención brindada a personas con diabetes tipo 2, genera un gran impacto socioeconómico y un grave problema de salud pública. La educación de estas personas a través de pares con diabetes mellitus es una alternativa, a la brindada por equipos profesionales (educación tradicional), que logra resultados no inferiores a esta última. Sin embargo, hay escasa evidencia de costo-efectividad de la educación a través de pares respecto de la tradicional. OBJETIVO: Evaluar la relación costo-efectividad de la educación de personas con diabetes tipo 2, durante un año por un equipo profesional (educación tradicional), versus educación y apoyo impartida por un par con diabetes mellitus (educación de pares). MÉTODOS: Análisis de costo-efectividad basado en un estudio clínico prospectivo aleatorizado, desarrollado en la ciudad de La Plata sobre 199 personas con diabetes tipo 2, organizados en dos grupos: uno que recibió educación tradicional y otro educación a través de pares con diabetes mellitus. Como indicador primario de efectividad se consideró el cambio en la hemoglobina glicosilada y como secundarios otros como índice de masa corporal, presión arterial sistólica, presión arterial diastólica, glucemia en ayunas, colesterol total y triglicéridos. Se estimó el costo directo de cada estrategia basándose en recursos utilizados en el estudio clínico y evaluándose tres escenarios de costos para la educación de pares. La robustez de los resultados se evaluó mediante análisis de sensibilidad univariado. RESULTADOS: El costo por unidad de descenso (%) de hemoglobina glicosilada con educación tradicional fue de $2621 pesos argentinos; y con educación a través de pares fue de $1508, $1779 y $2071 pesos argentinos, para cada uno de los tres escenarios considerados (escenario 1, escenario 2 y escenario 3), respectivamente. Por cada $100 pesos argentinos invertidos se logró descender 0,04% de hemoglobina glicosilada con la educación tradicional. Con la educación a través de pares los resultados fueron 0,07% en escenario 1; 0,06% en escenario 2 y 0,05% en escenario 3. El análisis de sensibilidad demostró la robustez de los resultados obtenidos. CONCLUSIÓN: La educación de personas con diabetes tipo 2 a través de pares, complementaria al control y tratamiento de la enfermedad, es costo efectiva respecto a la educación tradicional.

Direct and indirect costs associated to type 2 diabetes and its complications measured in a social security institution of Argentina.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate direct and indirect costs of care of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and its complications in Argentina, and compare them with those recorded in people without diabetes (ND). METHODS: Observational retrospective case-control study performed in one institution of the Social Security System of Argentina. Participants were identified and randomly selected from the Institution's electronic medical records. We recruited persons with T2DM with (387) or without (387) chronic complications and 774 ND, matched by age and gender. Data were obtained by telephone interviews and supplemented with data from the Institution's records. Parametric and non-parametric tests were used for group comparisons. RESULTS: Direct costs were higher in people with T2DM than in ND: twice as high in people with T2DM without complications and 3.6 times in those with complications. Absenteeism was only higher in T2DM with complications, but there were no differences among groups either in the duration or in the cost of such absenteeism. CONCLUSIONS: T2DM and the development of its complications are positively associated with higher direct costs in Argentina.

Diabetes in South and Central America: an update.

The estimated population of the South and Central America (SACA) Region is 467.6 million and 64% is in the age range of 20-79 years but the population pyramid and age distribution are changing. The average prevalence of diabetes in the Region is 8.0% and is expected to reach 9.8% by the year 2035. Prevalence is much lower in rural settings than in urban and the differences attributed to lifestyle changes may be a target for intervention. The indigenous population is a particularly vulnerable group needing special attention. On average, 24% of the adult cases with diabetes are undiagnosed but in some countries this is still as high as 50%. Health expenditure due to diabetes in the Region is around 9% of the global total. Inadequate glycemic control, defined as HbA1c >7%, is a strong predictor of chronic complications which increase resource use in the Region and less than half of the patients enrolled in diabetes care programmes are at target. Fifty percent or more of the adult population is overweight/obese and around one third of the adult population has metabolic syndrome using regional cutoffs for waist circumference. The number of people with IGT is almost equal to those with diabetes presenting an additional challenge for prevention. Children with type 1 diabetes represent only 0.2% of the total population with diabetes but the incidence may be increasing. In many places they have limited access to insulin, and even when available, it is not used appropriately. The available epidemiological data provide the background to act in developing national diabetes programmes which integrate diabetes care with cardiovascular prevention and promote diabetes prevention as well.

Multifaceted determinants for achieving glycemic control: the International Diabetes Management Practice Study (IDMPS).

OBJECTIVE: The International Diabetes Mellitus Practice Study is a 5-year survey documenting changes in diabetes treatment practice in developing regions. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors for achieving A1C <7% in 11,799 patients (1,898 type 1 diabetic and 9,901 type 2 diabetic) recruited by 937 physicians from 17 countries in Eastern Europe (n = 3,519), Asia (n = 5,888), Latin America (n = 2,116), and Africa (n = 276). RESULTS: Twenty-two percent of type 1 diabetic and 36% of type 2 diabetic patients never had A1C measurements. In those with values for A1C, blood pressure, and LDL cholesterol, 7.5% of type 1 diabetic (n = 696) and 3.6% of type 2 diabetic (n = 3,896) patients attained all three recommended targets (blood pressure <130/80 mmHg, LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl, and A1C <7%). Self-monitoring of blood glucose was the only predictor for achieving the A1C goal in type 1 diabetes (odds ratios: Asia 2.24, Latin America 3.55, and Eastern Europe 2.42). In type 2 diabetes, short disease duration (Asia 0.97, Latin America 0.97, and Eastern Europe 0.82) and treatment with few oral glucose-lowering drugs (Asia 0.64, Latin America 0.76, and Eastern Europe 0.62) were predictors. Other region-specific factors included lack of microvascular complications and old age in Latin America and Asia; health insurance coverage and specialist care in Latin America; lack of obesity and self-adjustment of insulin dosages in Asia; and training by a diabetes educator, self-monitoring of blood glucose in patients who self-adjusted insulin, and lack of macrovascular complications in Eastern Europe. CONCLUSIONS: In developing countries, factors pertinent to patients, doctors, and health care systems all impact on glycemic control.

Evaluación y costos del proceso de atención de pacientes diabéticos / Evaluation and cost of the health care process of diabetic patients

El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar la calidad y los costos de la atención brindada a personas con diabetes en La Plata, Argentina, a través de la obra social para empleados del sector público de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (IOMA - Instituto de Obra Médico Asistencial de la Provincia de Buenos Aires). Para ello, se entrevistaron 1.590 afiliados con diabetes, y se analizaron los datos obtenidos mediante el análisis univariado y de regresión logística múltiple. Los pacientes tratados sin insulina (48%) fueron significativamente mayores, y presentaron obesidad, hipertensión y macroangiopatía con más frecuencia que los tratados con insulina. La tasa de internación fue significativamente más alta en los pacientes tratados con insulina y comparable en las personas sin complicaciones o que sólo presentaron microangiopatía, pero aumentó significativamente en las personas con macroangiopatía. Muchas de las prácticas recomendadas en normas internacionales no se realizaron durante el año previo: examen de los pies (20-30%), derivación al oftalmólogo (21-29%), y determinación de HbA1c (60-78%). Contrariamente, la tasa de uso de pruebas diagnósticas y el número de visitas al médico de cabecera fue alto, inclusive en pacientes sin complicaciones, resultando en un costo estimado de atención 22.7% superior al esperado si los exámenes y prácticas se hubieran realizado siguiendo las recomendaciones de las normas internacionales. En conclusión, la atención actual de la diabetes es ineficaz y costosa. La implementación de normas de atención basadas en consensos nacionales e internacionales resultaría en una distribución más eficaz de los recursos, mejorando la calidad de atención de las personas con diabetes y su calidad de vida.

Diseño e implementación de un programa de prevención, atención y tratamiento de personas con diabetes en una entidad financiadora de servicios de salud / Design and implementation of a program to prevent, assist and treat people with diabetes in health care services

La diabetes mellitus (DM) es una enfermedad metabólica crónica, generadora de complicaciones que causan discapacidad, muerte prematura y altos costos de atención y socioeconómicos. Para su diagnóstico, control y tratamiento, se requiere un equipo interdisciplinario, técnicas bioquímicas, otras técnicas modernas no invasivas y la implementación de pautas de atención tendientes a mejorar la calidad de vida y promover la prevención de las complicaciones. Todo esto señala la necesidad de la sistematización de un Programa de atención que permita optimizar el acceso y el uso eficaz y eficiente de los recursos disponibles, para modificar el curso natural y disminuir sus costos socioeconómicos. Siendo la DM una de las enfermedades trazadoras, las estrategias utilizadas para mejorar la calidad de su control y tratamiento pueden ser transferidas a otras enfermedades crónicas. El Programa propuesto contempla innovaciones en el actual Sistema de Atención de las personas con DM: incorporación de la nutricionista al equipo interdisciplinario, jerarquización de la consulta médica, interconsulta anual con especialistas y educación de los pacientes e incorporación de estrategias de prevención. También incluye un sistema de monitoreo continuo de la evolucición de las personas con DM y de los resultados del Programa a través de un conjunto de indicadores de uso y calidad de atención y su evaluación por un comité intersectorial

Programa de prevención, atención y tratamiento de personas con diabetes: diseño e implementación en una entidad financiadora de servicios de salud / Program of prevention, care and treatment of people with diabetes mellitus: design and implementation at a healthcare financing enitity

La diabetes mellitus (DM) es una enfermedad crónica generadora de complicaciones crónicas que causan discapacidad, muerte prematura y altos costos socioeconómicos. Para su diagnóstico, control y tratamiento se requiere un equipo interdisciplinario, técnicas bioquímicas, otras técnicas modernas no invasivas y la implementación de pautas de atención tendientes a mejorar la calidad de vida y promover la prevención de las complicaciones. Todo esto señala la necesidad de la sistematización de un Programa de atención que permita optimizar el acceso y el uso eficaz y eficiente de los recursos disponibles públicos y privados para modificar el curso natural, disminuyendo los costos socioeconómicos. Siendo la DM una de las enfermedades trazadoras, las estrategias utilizadas para mejorar la calidad de su control y tratamiento pueden ser transferidas a otras enfermedades crónicas. El Programa propuesto contempla innovaciones en el actual Sistema de Atención de las personas con DM: incorporación de la nutricionista al equipo interdisciplinario, jerarquización de la consulta médica, interconsulta anual con especialistas, educación de los pacientes e incorporación de estrategias de prevención. También incluye un sistema de monitoreo continuo de la evolución de las personas con DM y de los resultados del Programa a través de un conjunto de indicadores de uso y calidad de atención y su evaluación por un comité intersectorial