'Small-scale' tourism versus traditional tourism: Which will be the new key to achieve the desired sustainable tourism?

The tourism sector after COVID-19 has raised different concerns that have lead to a development towards a more sustainable model of tourism. After the health crisis, the increase in environmental awareness of tourists has become evident. In this context, the great paradigm of 'small-scale' tourism has been developed as opposed to traditional tourism. The present work seeks to contribute to sustainable development in the Spanish tourism sector, comparing a hostel in Cantabria (considered as 'small scale' /religious tourism) and a hotel in Lloret de Mar (considered as a traditional tourism) one using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology to verify advantages and disadvantages of both types of tourism. The functional unit (FU) used was 'per guest night with breakfast included'. The results have revealed similar results for both establishments in all impact categories, as can be seen in its contribution to Climate Change (4.41 kg CO2 eq./FU caused by the hotel and 4.78 kg CO2 eq./FU by the hostel). The electricity consumption and the impact of the breakfast in the hostel were identified as main contributors to environmental burdens (with 76.72 % of the hotel's impact to climate change and 77.36 % for the hostel); hence, improvement opportunities envisaged were focused on these critical points. On the one hand, a biomass boiler, a solar water-heating system and a hybrid solar/biomass heating are considered a more sustainable alternatives related to electricity. Natural gas and diesel Consumption, respectively. On the other hand, oatmeal, Greek yoghurt and berries are good options for a breakfast with a reduced environmental impact. It is also important to implement responsible and green practices in order to achieve more environmentally sustainable alternative and traditional accommodations. Therefore, it can be concluded by stating that LCA is a tool capable of identifying and studying the processes with the highest environmental impact in order to find out the most sustainable form of tourism.

Life cycle assessment to address the environmental impacts of tourism in a Spanish tourist destination: The case of Rias Baixas (Galicia) holidays.

Tourism has grown steadily in recent decades, becoming a strategic sector for the economy in many countries. However, the environmental impacts associated with tourism have also experienced an upward trend. In this sense, innovation is needed in the tourism sector, to move towards new models and strategies that integrate environmental sustainability with the social aspects of the sector. In this study, a holistic assessment of the environmental impact of tourism has been carried out using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method, considering all stages of tourism activity: transportation from the place of origin to destination and back, accommodation, catering, and activities conducted. For this purpose, a case study has been carried out based on a typical trip made from Madrid to Rías Baixas (Galicia), considering a four-night stay and the performance of two activities (music festival and cultural museum) at the destination. Two alternative transportation scenarios (train or plane) have been defined to analyze the influence of the type of transportation on the overall impact. Other touristic activities such as visiting gardens or thermal baths instead of visiting a cultural museum or attending a music festival have been analyzed and it has been found that the thermal baths and the museum have the greatest environmental impacts. Transportation was the biggest contributor to most of the environmental impacts in the selected categories. On the other hand, the stay at the destination has stood out due to the impact of the consumption of food and energy used at the accommodation facility. The impact of the activities conducted at the destination is also worth highlighting. Finally, alternative scenarios for transportation have shown that the mode of transportation selected is key for lowering the overall environmental impact of the stay at the destination, highlighting the public transportation alternative, such as the train, as the most environmentally friendly option.

An Application for Aesthetic Quality Assessment in Photography with Interpretability Features.

Automatic aesthetic quality assessment is a computer vision problem in which we quantify the attractiveness or the appealingness of a photograph. This is especially useful in social networks, where the amount of images generated each day requires automation for processing. This work presents Aesthetic Selector, an application able to identify images of high aesthetic quality, showing also relevant information about the decisions and providing the use of the most appropriate filters to enhance a given image. We then analyzed the main proposals in the aesthetic quality field, describing their strengths and weaknesses in order to determine the filters to be included in the application Aesthetic Selector. This proposed application was tested, giving good results, in three different scenarios: image selection, image finding, and filter selection. Besides, we carried out a study of distinct visualization tools to better understand the models' behavior. These techniques also allow detecting which areas are more relevant within the images when models perform classification. The application also includes this interpretability module. Aesthetic Selector is an innovative and original program, because in the field of aesthetic quality in photography, there are no applications that identify high-quality images and also because it offers the capability of showing information about which parts of the image have affected this decision.

Predictors of Caregiver Burden of Patients with Alzheimer Disease Attending Day-Care Centres.

Nowadays, there are plenty of programs and resources to prevent caregiver burden of patients with Alzheimer's disease. In spite of that, many caregivers suffer high levels of burden and stress, which leads to an earlier institutionalization of patients. This study aimed to explore the predictors of burden in relative caregivers of patients attending day-care centers and the moderating role of caregiver kinship in these associations. A sample of a hundred and two patient-caregiver dyads was recruited. Burden was measured with a Zarit Burden Interview. Measures of patients' cognition, insight, depression, behavioral disturbances, functional ability and overall physical health were considered as predictors. We found that apathy, irritability and delusions and, patients' mobility are the main determinants of caregivers' burden. The strength of relationship between delusions and irritability was higher in spouse caregivers. Interventions to reduce burden should be adapted to the specific needs of a particular type caregiver.

Evaluation of the Efficiency of European Health Systems Using Fuzzy Data Envelopment Analysis.

Many studies that assess efficiency in health systems are based on output mean values. That approach ignores the representativeness of the average statistic, which can become a serious problem in estimation. To solve this question, this research contributes in three different ways: the first aim is to evaluate the technical efficiency in the management of European health systems considering a set of DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis) and FDEA (Fuzzy Data Envelopment Analysis) models. A second goal is to assess the bias in the estimation of efficiency when applying the conventional DEA. The third objective is the evaluation of the statistical relationship between the bias in the efficiency estimation and the macroeconomic variables (income inequality and economic freedom). The main results show positive correlations between DEA and FDEA scores. Notwithstanding traditional DEA models overestimate efficiency scores. Furthermore, the size of the bias is positively related to income inequality and negative with economic freedom in the countries evaluated.

Analysis and determination the efficiency of the European health systems.

The current economic crisis has increased the interest in analyzing the efficiency of health care systems, as their funding is a very important part of the budgets for different countries. In this work determines the efficiency in the health services in European countries applying data envelopment analysis. In addition, the combined application of data envelopment analysis methods and ACP can provide an evaluation of the efficiency with respect to differently oriented productive health systems in the different countries. The results show that models with a lower level of efficiency are those whose input is beds, followed by the models whose input is physicians. Finally, we apply the AD to select a few simple indicators that facilitate control of the level of operational efficiency of a health system.

The Usefulness of Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in the Assessment of Early Kidney Transplant Function and Complications.

OBJECTIVES: The routine diagnostic method for assessment of renal graft dysfunction is Doppler ultrasound. However, contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) may provide more information about parenchymal flow and vascular status of kidney allografts. The aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of CEUS in the immediate post-transplant period, focusing on acute vascular complications. A brief review of available literature and a report of our initial experience is made. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 15 kidney transplant (KT) cases with clinical suspicion of acute surgical complication were assessed with CEUS and conventional Doppler ultrasound (US). In addition, bibliographic review was conducted through PubMed, Embase, and ClinicalKey databases. RESULTS: 10% of KT underwent CEUS, useful for detecting vascular complication or cortical necrosis in 4 (26%) and exclude them in 74%. Grafts with acute vascular complications have a delayed contrast-enhancement with peak intensity lower than normal kidneys. Perfusion defects can be clearly observed and the imaging of cortical necrosis is pathognomonic. CONCLUSIONS: CEUS is a useful tool in the characterization of renal graft dysfunction with special interest on acute vascular complications after renal transplant. It is a feasible technique for quantitative analysis of kidney perfusion, which provides information on renal tissue microcirculation and regional parenchymal flow. Exploration could be done by a urologist at the patient's bedside while avoiding iodinated contrast.

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) against HIV: efficacy, safety and uncertainties.

Despite the global stabilization of the number of new HIV infections in recent years, there has been an increase in new infections among men who have sex with men. This fact indicates the lack of effectiveness of the measures and prevention campaigns established so far for this group.  It is therefore necessary to implement alternative preventive measures for them. Pre-exposure pharmacological prophylaxis (PrEP) is one of the best evaluated options and has had high protection rates in both clinical and real-life trials. The strategy has also shown an adequate profile in terms of safety, tolerance, adverse effects and cost-effectiveness in the studies carried out to assess this important topic.

En los últimos años se ha objetivado un incremento de las nuevas infecciones por el VIH en el grupo de hombres que tienen sexo con hombres, lo que indica la ausencia de eficacia de las campañas y medidas preventivas instauradas en dicho grupo.Es necesario, por tanto, implementar medidas preventivas alternativas, siendo la profilaxis farmacológica pre-exposición (PrEP) una de las opciones mejor evaluadas tanto en ensayos clínicos como en la vida real, habiéndose demostrado tasas de protección superiores al 80% cuando se administra en los casos indicados y con buen cumplimiento terapeútico.La estrategia ha demostrado, además, un perfil adecuado en seguridad,tolerancia y efectos adversos, siendo además coste-efectiva según losestudios realizados para valorar este importante aspecto.

Infectious disease risk and international tourism demand.

CONTEXT: For some countries, favourable climatic conditions for tourism are often associated with favourable conditions for infectious diseases, with the ensuing development constraints on the tourist sectors of impoverished countries where tourism's economic contribution has a high potential. This paper evaluates the economic implications of eradication of Malaria, Dengue, Yellow Fever and Ebola on the affected destination countries focusing on the tourist expenditures. METHODS: A gravity model for international tourism flows is used to provide an estimation of the impact of each travel-related disease on international tourist arrivals. Next the potential eradication of these diseases in the affected countries is simulated and the impact on tourism expenditures is estimated. FINDINGS: The results show that, in the case of Malaria, Dengue, Yellow Fever and Ebola, the eradication of these diseases in the affected countries would result in an increase of around 10 million of tourist worldwide and a rise in the tourism expenditure of 12 billion dollars. CONCLUSION: By analysing the economic benefits of the eradication of Dengue, Ebola, Malaria, and Yellow Fever for the tourist sector-a strategic economic sector for many of the countries where these TRD are present-this paper explores a new aspect of the quantification of health policies which should be taken into consideration in future international health assessment programmes. It is important to note that the analysis is only made of the direct impact of the diseases' eradication and consequently the potential multiplicative effects of a growth in the GDP, in terms of tourism attractiveness, are not evaluated. Consequently, the economic results can be considered to be skeleton ones.

Awareness of the healthcare system and rights to healthcare in the Colombian population.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze changes in users' awareness of the healthcare system and of their rights to healthcare in Colombia in the last 10 years, as well as the factors that influence users' awareness. METHODS: We carried out a descriptive study to compare the results of two cross-sectional studies based on two surveys of users of the Colombian healthcare system. The first survey was performed in 2000 and the second in 2010. The municipalities of Tuluá (urban area) and Palmira (rural area) were surveyed. In both surveys, a stratified, multistage probability sample was selected. There were 1497 users in the first sample and 1405 in the second. Changes in awareness of the healthcare system and associated factors in each year were assessed through multivariate logistic regressions. RESULTS: Users' awareness of the healthcare system was limited in 2000 and was significantly lower in 2010, except for that relating to health insurers and providers. In contrast, more than 90% of users in both surveys perceived themselves as having healthcare rights. The factors consistently associated with greater awareness were belonging to a high socioeconomic stratum and having higher education. CONCLUSIONS: The most underprivileged users were less likely to be aware of the healthcare system, hampering their ability to make informed decisions and to exercise their health rights. To correct this situation, health institutions and the government should act decisively to reduce social inequalities.

Changes in awareness and utilization of social participation mechanisms of the Colombian health care system in the last 10 years.

This article seeks to analyze changes in awareness and utilization of social participation mechanisms of the Colombian health care system in the last 10 years by comparing two cross-sectional studies based on surveys among health care users in 2000 and 2010. The results show that while in 2000, the level of awareness and utilization of the mechanisms were low, in 2010 researchers identified a significant tendency toward further diminishing of awareness and utilization. In both surveys, the best-known and most-used participation mechanisms were the market mechanisms. Also in both surveys, individuals from the rural zone were aware of and used the mechanisms. In the first survey, men were more aware of the mechanisms and used them more frequently, but it was women in the second survey who presented higher rates of awareness and use; these differences, however, were not statistically significant. The results herein indicate that effective social participation in the General Social Security System in Health is far from being achieved. The policy has failed to materialize, as evidenced by the lack of balance in the participation of one of the main actors of the General Social Security System in Health: the users.

Calidad en los servicios de salud desde los marcos de sentido de diferentes actores sociales en Colombia y Brasil / Quality of health-care according to social actors' frameworks of meaning in Colombia and Brazil

Objetivo Analizar los marcos de sentido en la definición de la calidad de un servicio de salud de los diversos actores sociales en Colombia y Brasil. Método Estudio cualitativo, descriptivo-interpretativo, mediante grupos focales y entrevistas individuales en dos municipios de Colombia y Brasil. Muestra teórica de agentes sociales, buscando variedad del discurso: a. Usuarios y líderes; b. Personal de salud y; c. Formuladores de políticas. Análisis de contenido, con generación mixta de categorías y segmentación de los datos por país, informantes y temas. Resultados Los marcos de sentido desde los cuales construyen la calidad de la atención, usuarios y personal de salud en ambos países, mostraron convergencias en torno a tres grandes ejes: adecuación de la estructura, nivel técnico y humanización de la atención. Presentaron, no obstante, matices diferenciadores: los usuarios de ambos países profundizan en aspectos estructurales y organizativos como disponibilidad y accesibilidad de recursos, y en aspectos técnicos, como resolutividad y calidad técnica. El personal de salud de Colombia y Brasil mostró similitudes, pero mientras los primeros destacaban más una administración ágil y tiempo de consulta mayor; los segundos, más disposición de personal especializado, materiales e insumos suficientes. Por su parte, el marco de sentido de los formuladores emergió del conjunto de normas legales. Conclusiones Los matices aportados por los distintos marcos de sentido de calidad de los actores sociales, indican la necesidad de tenerlos en cuenta en su totalidad, ya que apuntan a diferentes debilidades del sistema. Además, muestran que los usuarios profundizan más en aspectos técnicos del servicio de lo considerado habitualmente.

Objective To analyse social actors' frameworks of meaning regarding the definition of health-care quality in Colombia and Brazil. Method This was a descriptive, interpretative, qualitative study which used focus-groups and individual indepth interviews in two municipalities in Colombia and Brazil. The following social actors were theoretical sampled to represent the variety of views: users and leaders, health-care personnel and policy-makers. Content was analysed with mixed generation of categories and segmentation by country, actors and themes. Results The frameworks of meaning regarding health-care quality for users and health personnel in both countries revealed coincidences concerning three main topics: structural suitability, technical level and humanisation of care. However, they had differentiated meanings; users from both countries highlighted structural and organisational aspects, together with technical aspects such as resolution level and quality of care. Colombian and Brazilian health-care personnel shared some views but whilst the former highlighted non-bureaucratic and consultation time, the latter singled out the availability of specialised personnel, materials and equipment. Policy-makers' framework of meanings emerge from the legal framework. Conclusions Features provided by the social actors' frameworks of meaning indicated the need to take them all into consideration as they all pointed out different system weaknesses. They also showed that users valued technical quality more than is generally considered.

[Quality of health-care according to social actors' frameworks of meaning in Colombia and Brazil]. / Calidad en los servicios de salud desde los marcos de sentido de diferentes actores sociales en Colombia y Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse social actors' frameworks of meaning regarding the definition of health-care quality in Colombia and Brazil. METHOD: This was a descriptive, interpretative, qualitative study which used focus-groups and individual indepth interviews in two municipalities in Colombia and Brazil. The following social actors were theoretical sampled to represent the variety of views: users and leaders, health-care personnel and policy-makers. Content was analysed with mixed generation of categories and segmentation by country, actors and themes. RESULTS: The frameworks of meaning regarding health-care quality for users and health personnel in both countries revealed coincidences concerning three main topics: structural suitability, technical level and humanisation of care. However, they had differentiated meanings; users from both countries highlighted structural and organisational aspects, together with technical aspects such as resolution level and quality of care. Colombian and Brazilian health-care personnel shared some views but whilst the former highlighted non-bureaucratic and consultation time, the latter singled out the availability of specialised personnel, materials and equipment. Policy-makers' framework of meanings emerge from the legal framework. CONCLUSIONS: Features provided by the social actors' frameworks of meaning indicated the need to take them all into consideration as they all pointed out different system weaknesses. They also showed that users valued technical quality more than is generally considered.

[Users' and community leaders' perceptions of their capacity to influence the quality of health care: case studies of Colombia and Brazil]. / Percepciones de usuarios y líderes comunitarios sobre su capacidad para influenciar en la calidad de los servicios de salud: un estudio de casos de Colombia y Brasil.

Health system reforms in Colombia and Brazil introduced policies that promote social participation in health care quality control. The objective of this paper was to analyze users' and leaders' perceptions of their capacity to achieve changes in the countries' health services. An exploratory and descriptive qualitative study was performed with individual interviews and focus groups of users and leaders in Colombia and Brazil. Most informants perceived themselves as having the capacity to induce changes to improve the quality of health services. They attributed this capacity primarily to internal factors related to their participatory behavior, plus only one external factor, the availability of institutional participatory spaces. The lack of capacity to influence change was only related to passive attitudes and fear of retaliation in Colombia. The existence of a population with high self-perceived capacity to achieve change appears as a potential factor to be strengthened, while institutional democratic space needs to improve in order to enhance the effectiveness of social participation in health policies.

Percepciones de usuarios y líderes comunitarios sobre su capacidad para influenciar en la calidad de los servicios de salud: un estudio de casos de Colombia y Brasil / Users' and community leaders' perceptions of their capacity to influence the quality of health care: case studies of Colombia and Brazil

Los sistemas de salud en Colombia y Brasil incluyen políticas que promueven la participación de la población en el control de la calidad de los servicios de salud. El objetivo del artículo es analizar la percepción de usuarios y líderes de ambos países sobre su capacidad para lograr cambios en los servicios de salud. Se realizó un estudio cualitativo, exploratorio y descriptivo mediante grupos focales y entrevistas individuales a usuarios y líderes en Colombia y Brasil. La gran mayoría de usuarios y líderes se perciben con capacidad de inducir cambios que mejoren la calidad de los servicios de salud. Capacidad que atribuyen fundamentalmente a factores internos, relacionados con su comportamiento participativo y únicamente a un factor externo, la existencia de espacios de participación en las instituciones. La ausencia de capacidad se relacionaba con actitudes conformistas y temor a las represalias - sólo en Colombia. La existencia de una población con alta capacidad de logro percibida se revela como potencial a fortalecer, al tiempo que se mejora la apertura democrática de las instituciones, para aumentar la efectividad de las políticas de participación en salud.

Health system reforms in Colombia and Brazil introduced policies that promote social participation in health care quality control. The objective of this paper was to analyze users' and leaders' perceptions of their capacity to achieve changes in the countries' health services. An exploratory and descriptive qualitative study was performed with individual interviews and focus groups of users and leaders in Colombia and Brazil. Most informants perceived themselves as having the capacity to induce changes to improve the quality of health services. They attributed this capacity primarily to internal factors related to their participatory behavior, plus only one external factor, the availability of institutional participatory spaces. The lack of capacity to influence change was only related to passive attitudes and fear of retaliation in Colombia. The existence of a population with high self-perceived capacity to achieve change appears as a potential factor to be strengthened, while institutional democratic space needs to improve in order to enhance the effectiveness of social participation in health policies.

Actitudes y opiniones de actores implicados en la política participativa del control de la calidad de los servicios de salud en Colombia / Attitudes and opinions of actors involved in the participatory policy of quality control of health services in Colombia

La participación es uno de los ejes de la reforma al sector salud y su implantación depende de muchos factores como las actitudes de quienes están involucrados. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar las actitudes y opiniones sobre la participación en salud de usuarios, personal de salud y formuladores de políticas en Colombia. Se realizó una investigación exploratoria y descriptiva, combinando métodos cualitativos a través de 25 grupos focales, con 210 usuarios y 40 líderes, y 36 entrevistas individuales semi-estructuradas a personal de salud, con una encuesta a 1.497 usuarios. Se encontró que casi todos los actores tienen una actitud positiva frente a la participación, la cual era más favorable entre usuarios mujeres, personas con estudios básicos, de niveles socioeconómicos bajos, jubilados y desempleados. Se observaron en el personal de salud actitudes ambivalentes determinadas por factores culturales, de favorabilidad hacia la participación, pero desfavorables hacia elementos situacionales que la determinan. Esto indicaría que se requiere por parte de los actores, en especial de los profesionales, un cambio en la manera de percibir y comprender la realidad social, para promover una participación efectiva en el control social del sistema de salud.

Participation is the core of reform to the health sector; its implementation depends on many factors as the attitudes of individuals involved. The author’s objective was to analyze attitudes and opinions on participation of Colombian users, health care personnel and policy makers. An exploratory and descriptive research was carried out, in 25 focal groups of 210 users, 40 leaders, and 36 individual semi-structured interviews to health care personnel, combiningqualitative and quantitative methods with a survey to 1497 users. It was found that most of the actors have a positive attitude towards participation, which was more favorable among women, people with basic studies and low socioeconomic level, retirees and the unemployed. It was also found that health care personnel had ambivalent attitudes favorable opinions towards participation, but unfavorable ones about the situational elements that determine it. These findings indicate that a change in the manner of perceiving and understanding social reality is required from actors especially from professionals to promote effective participation in the health care system social control.

[Barriers and opportunities for social participation in health: the main social actors' perceptions]. / Barreras y oportunidades para la participación social en salud en Colombia: percepciones de los actores principales.

OBJECTIVE: Analysing barriers to and opportunities for user involvement as perceived by the social actors involved in implementing Colombian policy regarding social participation in health. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative study was carried out in the Colombian towns of Tuluá and Palmira between 2000 and 2001. There were 10 focus groups having 260 users and leaders. Semi-structured individual interviews were given to health personnel (36) and policy-makers (3). Narrative content, mixed categories and data segmentation by informants and topics were then analysed. RESULTS: Users and leaders considered their own lack of knowledge, apathy and fear of revenge as barriers for participation. However, there were institutional factors such as lack of institutional transparency, limited receptiveness and responsiveness regarding participation. These opinions were shared by policy-makers. Most health personnel identified users' knowledge and attitudes as barriers for participation; few mentioned any institutional barriers such as the behaviour of personnel, institutional opacity and the lack of resources for fostering work in the community. Opportunities for participation were described in terms of suitable and possible scenarios. Users perceived their great ability to achieve change through their direct participation appeared to them as presenting an important opportunity. CONCLUSIONS: Users' and leaders' perceptions of the current barriers and opportunities seemed to show that they are critical of their own reality and constitute important potential actors for becoming key interlocutors with institutions and the state. A similar attitude would be necessary on the part of institutional actors to build a real and permanent participatory culture.

Conocimientos, opiniones y experiencias con la aplicación de las políticas de participación en salud en Colombia / Knowledge, opinions and experience from applying health participation policy in Colombia

Objetivo: Analizar el conocimiento y opiniones sobre las políticas de participación en salud y la experiencia con los mecanismos de participación de usuarios, líderes comunitarios y personal de salud en Colombia. Método Entre 1999 y 2001 se realizó en los municipios Tulúa y Palmira, Colombia, una investigación exploratoria y descriptiva que combinó métodos cuantitativos, encuesta a una muestra de 1 497 usuarios, con métodos cualitativos, a través de grupos focales a 210 usuarios y 40 líderes y 36 entrevistas individuales semi-estructuradas a personal de salud. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de los resultados de la encuesta, mediante el SPSS, y un análisis narrativo de contenido de los datos cualitativos, mediante el Ethnograph. Resultados La encuesta a los usuarios mostró un gran desconocimiento de la normatividad y los mecanismos de participación formal y un uso limitado de los mismos. Desconocimiento y cierto escepticismo sobre su eficacia se reflejó en el estudio cualitativo con usuarios, líderes y personal de salud. El personal del sector público mostraba un concepto más elaborado y refería una mayor implementación de mecanismos. Entre las dificultades para la implementación destacan carencia de recursos y de cultura participativa. Conclusiones Los resultados muestran un conocimiento y uso escaso de los mecanismos de participación social en salud, con predominio de los basados en el mercado. Se requiere importante una intervención en información y formación de la población y personal de salud para promover una participación real para el control social del sistema de salud.

Objective: Analysing knowledge and opinions regarding policies related to social participation in health and how user, community leader and health personnel participation mechanisms are used in Colombia. Methods An exploratory and descriptive study was carried out between 1999 and 2001 in the towns of Tuluá and Palmira in Colombia using a combination of research methods. A sample of 1,497 health care users were formally surveyed, a focus-group-based qualitative study was made of 210 users and 40 community leaders and 36 semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with health personnel. SPSS was used for a descriptive analysis of survey data and Ethnograph for narrative content analysis of qualitative data. Results The user survey results revealed a lack of knowledge regarding norms and mechanisms for social participation in health, as well as limited use. Limited knowledge and scepticism regarding its effectiveness was also reflected in the users, leaders and health personnel qualitative study results. Public sector personnel, however, displayed better knowledge and referred to greater implementation of participation mechanisms. Lack of both resources and a culture of participation were amongst the difficulties faced in implementing it. Conclusions The results indicated scarce knowledge and little use of social participation in health mechanisms (market-based ones predominating). Much greater investment in information and training the population and health system personnel is required as a first step towards promoting real social participation for social control of the health system.

[Knowledge, opinions and experience from applying health participation policy in Colombia]. / Conocimientos, opiniones y experiencias con la aplicación de las políticas de participación en salud en Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: Analysing knowledge and opinions regarding policies related to social participation in health and how user, community leader and health personnel participation mechanisms are used in Colombia. METHODS: An exploratory and descriptive study was carried out between 1999 and 2001 in the towns of Tuluá and Palmira in Colombia using a combination of research methods. A sample of 1,497 health care users were formally surveyed, a focus-group-based qualitative study was made of 210 users and 40 community leaders and 36 semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with health personnel. SPSS was used for a descriptive analysis of survey data and Ethnograph for narrative content analysis of qualitative data. RESULTS: The user survey results revealed a lack of knowledge regarding norms and mechanisms for social participation in health, as well as limited use. Limited knowledge and scepticism regarding its effectiveness was also reflected in the users, leaders and health personnel qualitative study results. Public sector personnel, however, displayed better knowledge and referred to greater implementation of participation mechanisms. Lack of both resources and a culture of participation were amongst the difficulties faced in implementing it. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated scarce knowledge and little use of social participation in health mechanisms (market-based ones predominating). Much greater investment in information and training the population and health system personnel is required as a first step towards promoting real social participation for social control of the health system.

[Social participation in health: user community leaders, managers and policy makers in Colombia. A qualitative view]. / Participación social en salud: conceptos de usuarios, líderes comunitarios, gestores y formuladores de políticas en Colombia. Una mirada cualitativa.

BACKGROUND: Health sector reforms taking place in Colombia during the Nineties included policies to promote social participation in the health system, which is considered essential to its functioning. The aim of this article is to analyse the meaning and the significance of participation in health for the different social actors involved in implementing policies in Colombia. METHODS: A qualitative, descriptive, exploratory study was carried out using focal groups (FG) and semi-structured individual interviews (I) of the different social actors: 210 users (FG), 40 community leaders (FG), 3 policy makers (E) and 36 healthcare professionals (E). A carried out analysis was content up of the contents. The study area corresponded to the municipalities of Tulua and Palmira in Colombia. RESULTS: The concept of participation was interpreted differently depending on the actor studied: for users and leaders the concept referred to contributing ideas, presence in social spaces, solidarity and frequently, and use of the health services. Healthcare professionals considered the activities carried out by institutions together with the community as social participation, the use of services and affiliation to the health system. Policy markers considered participation to concern evaluation and control of the health services by the community, to improve its quality. CONCLUSIONS: The different concepts of participation reveal dif ferences between the content of the policy and how it is understood and interpreted by the different social actors in their interaction with the health services. These different perspectives must be taken into account to develop a link between society and the health services.