Regional Overview on the Double Burden of Malnutrition and Examples of Program and Policy Responses: Latin America and the Caribbean.

BACKGROUND: Hunger, food insecurity, stunting, anemia, overweight, and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) may coexist in the same person, household, and community in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The double burden of malnutrition (DBM) is an important cause of disability and premature death, which could be addressed with comprehensive policies such as the Plan of Action for the Prevention of Obesity in Children and Adolescents. This paper summarizes the main policies and actions aimed to prevent undernutrition and obesity. SUMMARY: Several countries are implementing the Plan of Action, Caribbean Public Health Agency is actively supporting Ministries of Health, Education, and Sport to develop school nutrition policies and strategies to create health-promoting environments at school and in their surrounding communities. Chile is implementing the comprehensive child protection system "Chile Crece Contigo" that integrates health, social development, and educational activities to optimize growth and childhood cognitive-motor development. Brazil is implementing policies and plans to commit to international targets regarding food and nutrition security, NCDs and their risk factors. Key Messages: The DBM exists in the Americas and contributes to disability and premature death. The Region is making progress implementing policies and actions addressing the DBM. However, stronger political will and leadership are needed to enact legislation and policies that create and support enabling -environments.

Experiences and lessons learned for programme improvement of micronutrient powders interventions.

Continual course correction during implementation of nutrition programmes is critical to address factors that might limit coverage and potential for impact. Programme improvement requires rigorous scientific inquiry to identify and address implementation pathways and the factors that affect them. Under the auspices of "The Micronutrient Powders Consultation: Lessons Learned for Operational Guidance," 3 working groups were formed to summarize experiences and lessons across countries regarding micronutrient powder (MNP) interventions for young children. This paper focuses on how MNP interventions undertook key elements of programme improvement, specifically, the use of programme theory, monitoring, process evaluation, and supportive supervision. Methods included a review of published and grey literature, interviews with key informants, and deliberations throughout the consultation process. We found that although much has been written and published about the use of monitoring and process evaluation to inform MNP interventions at small scale, there has been little formal documentation of lessons for the transition from pilot to scaled implementation. Supervision processes and experiences are not documented, and to our knowledge, there is no evidence of whether they have been effective to improve implementation. Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of interventions requires identification of critical indicators for detecting implementation challenges and drivers of impact, integration with existing programmes and systems, strengthened technical capacity, and financing for implementation of effective monitoring systems. Our understanding of programme improvement for MNP interventions is still incomplete, especially outside of the pilot stage, and we propose a set of implementation research questions that require further investigation.

Tackling malnutrition in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities.

Undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies are still a public health problem in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), and overweight and obesity have reached epidemic proportions. To assess the nutrition landscape in LAC countries and guide future nutrition efforts and investments, the Pan American Health Organization and the Micronutrient Initiative joined efforts to 1) identify information gaps and describe the current nutritional situation in the region; 2) map existing policies to address malnutrition in Latin America; 3) describe the impact of conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) on nutrition and health outcomes; and 4) identify the challenges and opportunities to address malnutrition in the region. This article summarizes the methods and key findings from that research and describes the current challenges and opportunities in addressing malnutrition in the LAC region. LAC countries have advanced in reducing undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, but important gaps in information are a major concern. These countries have policies to address undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, but comprehensive and intersectoral policies to tackle obesity are lacking. CCTs in Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico have been reported to have a positive impact on child nutrition and health outcomes, providing an opportunity to integrate nutrition actions in intersectoral platforms. The current epidemiological situation and policy options offer an opportunity for countries, technical agencies, donors, and other stakeholders to jointly scale up nutrition actions. This can support the development of comprehensive and intersectoral policies to tackle the double burden of malnutrition, strengthen national nutrition surveillance systems, incorporate monitoring and evaluation as systematic components of policies and programs, document and increase investments in nutrition, and assess the effectiveness of such policies to support political commitment and guarantee sustainability.

Conditional cash transfer programs and the health and nutrition of Latin American children.

OBJECTIVE: To 1) describe the benefits, conditions, coverage, funding, goals, governance, and structure of well-established conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) in Latin America and 2) identify their health and nutritional impacts among children under 5 years old. METHODS: A realist review was conducted. CCTs were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: 1) current national-level program; 2) coverage of at least 50% of the target population; 3) continuous operation at scale for 10+ years; 4) clear description of structure, funding sources, and governance; 5) both health/nutrition- and education-related conditions for participation; and 6) available impact evaluation studies with health, development, and/or nutrition indicators among children under 5 years old. Three CCTs (one each in Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico) met the criteria. RESULTS: There was consistent evidence that the three CCTs selected for review had positive impacts on child health and nutrition outcomes in their respective countries. In all three countries, the programs were scaled up and positive impacts were documented relatively quickly. All three programs had strong political support and clear and transparent governance structures, including accountability and social participation mechanisms, which might explain their success and sustainability. CONCLUSIONS: CCTs in Latin America have had a positive impact on child health and nutrition outcomes among the poorest families. A key challenge for the future is to reform these programs to help families move out of not only extreme poverty but all poverty in order to lead healthy and productive lives, as called for in the post-2105 Sustainable Development Goals.

Conditional cash transfer programs and the health and nutrition of Latin American children / Los programas de transferencias de efectivo condicionadas y la salud y alimentación de los niños latinoamericanos

Objective. To 1) describe the benefits, conditions, coverage, funding, goals, governance, and structure of well-established conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) in Latin America and 2) identify their health and nutritional impacts among children under 5 years old. Methods. A realist review was conducted. CCTs were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: 1) current national-level program; 2) coverage of at least 50% of the target population; 3) continuous operation at scale for 10+ years; 4) clear description of structure, funding sources, and governance; 5) both health/nutrition- and education-related conditions for participation; and 6) available impact evaluation studies with health, development, and/or nutrition indicators among children under 5 years old. Three CCTs (one each in Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico) met the criteria. Results. There was consistent evidence that the three CCTs selected for review had positive impacts on child health and nutrition outcomes in their respective countries. In all three countries, the programs were scaled up and positive impacts were documented relatively quickly. All three programs had strong political support and clear and transparent governance structures, including accountability and social participation mechanisms, which might explain their success and sustainability. Conclusions. CCTs in Latin America have had a positive impact on child health and nutrition outcomes among the poorest families. A key challenge for the future is to reform these programs to help families move out of not only extreme poverty but all poverty in order to lead healthy and productive lives, as called for in the post-2105 Sustainable Development Goals.

Objetivo. (1) Describir los beneficios, requisitos, cobertura, financiamiento, objetivos, gobernanza y estructura de programas bien consolidados de transferencias de efectivo condicionadas (TEC) en América Latina y (2) determinar su efecto en la salud y el estado nutricional de los niños menores de 5 años. Métodos. Se llevó a cabo una revisión realista. Se incluyeron en ella los programas de TEC que satisfacían los siguientes criterios de inclusión: (1) programa de alcance nacional en curso; (2) cobertura de 50% de la población destinataria como mínimo; (3) funcionamiento en gran escala sin interrupción durante 10 años o más; (4) descripción explícita de la estructura, fuentes de financiamiento y gobernanza; (5) requisitos para la participación basados en criterios de salud y nutrición, así como de educación; y (6) disponibilidad de estudios de evaluación de efectos con indicadores de salud, desarrollo o estado nutricional en niños menores de 5 años. Tres programas de TEC (uno en el Brasil, uno en Colombia y otro en México) satisficieron estos criterios. Resultados. Hay pruebas contundentes de que los tres programas de TEC seleccionados para la revisión tuvieron efectos favorables en la salud y el estado nutricional de los niños en sus respectivos países. En los tres países los programas se ampliaron y los efectos positivos se documentaron con relativa rapidez. Los tres programas gozaron de un sólido apoyo político y tuvieron estructuras de gobernanza explícitas y transparentes con mecanismos de rendición de cuentas y de participación social, lo cual podría explicar sus buenos resultados y sostenibilidad. Conclusiones. En América Latina, las TEC han tenido un efecto favorable en la salud de los niños y en el estado nutricional de las familias más pobres. Un reto para el futuro estriba en reformar estos programas para ayudar a las familias a salir no solo de la extrema pobreza, sino de la pobreza en general a fin de que puedan llevar vidas saludables y productivas, en conformidad con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible para después del 2015.

Conditional cash transfer programs and the health and nutrition of Latin American children / Los programas de transferencias de efectivo condicionadas y la salud y alimentación de los niños latinoamericanos

ABSTRACT Objective To 1) describe the benefits, conditions, coverage, funding, goals, governance, and structure of well-established conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) in Latin America and 2) identify their health and nutritional impacts among children under 5 years old. Methods A realist review was conducted. CCTs were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: 1) current national-level program; 2) coverage of at least 50% of the target population; 3) continuous operation at scale for 10+ years; 4) clear description of structure, funding sources, and governance; 5) both health/nutrition- and education-related conditions for participation; and 6) available impact evaluation studies with health, development, and/or nutrition indicators among children under 5 years old. Three CCTs (one each in Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico) met the criteria. Results There was consistent evidence that the three CCTs selected for review had positive impacts on child health and nutrition outcomes in their respective countries. In all three countries, the programs were scaled up and positive impacts were documented relatively quickly. All three programs had strong political support and clear and transparent governance structures, including accountability and social participation mechanisms, which might explain their success and sustainability. Conclusions CCTs in Latin America have had a positive impact on child health and nutrition outcomes among the poorest families. A key challenge for the future is to reform these programs to help families move out of not only extreme poverty but all poverty in order to lead healthy and productive lives, as called for in the post-2105 Sustainable Development Goals.

RESUMEN Objetivo (1) Describir los beneficios, requisitos, cobertura, financiamiento, objetivos, gobernanza y estructura de programas bien consolidados de transferencias de efectivo condicionadas (TEC) en América Latina y (2) determinar su efecto en la salud y el estado nutricional de los niños menores de 5 años. Métodos Se llevó a cabo una revisión realista. Se incluyeron en ella los programas de TEC que satisfacían los siguientes criterios de inclusión: (1) programa de alcance nacional en curso; (2) cobertura de 50% de la población destinataria como mínimo; (3) funcionamiento en gran escala sin interrupción durante 10 años o más; (4) descripción explícita de la estructura, fuentes de financiamiento y gobernanza; (5) requisitos para la participación basados en criterios de salud y nutrición, así como de educación; y (6) disponibilidad de estudios de evaluación de efectos con indicadores de salud, desarrollo o estado nutricional en niños menores de 5 años. Tres programas de TEC (uno en el Brasil, uno en Colombia y otro en México) satisficieron estos criterios. Resultados Hay pruebas contundentes de que los tres programas de TEC seleccionados para la revisión tuvieron efectos favorables en la salud y el estado nutricional de los niños en sus respectivos países. En los tres países los programas se ampliaron y los efectos positivos se documentaron con relativa rapidez. Los tres programas gozaron de un sólido apoyo político y tuvieron estructuras de gobernanza explícitas y transparentes con mecanismos de rendición de cuentas y de participación social, lo cual podría explicar sus buenos resultados y sostenibilidad. Conclusiones En América Latina, las TEC han tenido un efecto favorable en la salud de los niños y en el estado nutricional de las familias más pobres. Un reto para el futuro estriba en reformar estos programas para ayudar a las familias a salir no solo de la extrema pobreza, sino de la pobreza en general a fin de que puedan llevar vidas saludables y productivas, en conformidad con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible para después del 2015.

The human capital study 2002-04: tracking, data collection, coverage, and attrition.

Between 2002 and 2004, the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP), in collaboration with Emory University, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), and the University of Pennsylvania, re-surveyed young Guatemalan adults who had, as children, been participants in a nutrition supplementation trial conducted by INCAP between 1969 and 1977. This "Human Capital Study 2002-04" complements and extends data obtained in previous studies by collecting new information on measures of physical health and well-being, schooling and cognitive ability, wealth, consumption and economic productivity, and marriage and fertility histories. This paper describes the study domains and data collection procedures. Among 2,393 members of the original sample, 1,856 (77%) were targets for enrollment. Response rates varied by gender, current place of residence, and domain of data collection, with 80% of males and 89% of females completing at least one data collection instrument. Attrition was not random and appears to be associated with a number of initial characteristics of individuals and their households that should be controlled for in future analyses. We conclude that data collection was successful and data quality is high, facilitating the successful undertaking of our planned investigation of important study hypotheses.

Schooling, educational achievement, and cognitive functioning among young Guatemalan adults.

Quantity and quality of schooling obtained and the resulting skills and knowledge acquired are important components of human capital. We describe the distribution of selected measures of schooling, educational achievement, and cognitive functioning among individuals who participated as children in a nutrition supplementation trial in Guatemala and were followed up in 2002-04. Among 1,469 respondents (response rate 80%), who were 26-41 years of age in 2003, more than 90% of men and women had attended at least some school; more than half of men and more than one-third of women had completed sixth grade. Schooling attainment of both men and women has increased across birth cohorts but the schooling gap between men and women has increased. Parental socioeconomic status, as measured in 1975, is a strong predictor of schooling attainment. Basic literacy is high among those studied, with more than 80% able to read simple sentences. The gap in educational achievement favoring men narrowed across birth cohorts due to increases among younger women. The greater performance among men on the Raven's Progressive Matrices test persisted despite increased scores in the younger birth cohorts for both men and women. Migrants to Guatemala City have completed more years of school and scored higher on the tests of educational achievement and cognitive functioning than have cohort members who have remained in the study villages.

Stress during labor and delivery is associated with delayed onset of lactation among urban Guatemalan women.

A delayed onset of lactation (OL) is likely to have a negative influence on breast-feeding outcomes. Thus, it is important to identify risk factors for delayed OL. We examined prospectively the association between stress during labor and delivery and OL in a cohort of urban Guatemalan women. Healthy women (n = 136) were recruited during the first stage of labor in the labor unit of a social security hospital in Guatemala City. Women provided salivary samples for cortisol determinations 3.2 +/- 3.2 h before birth and 1.7 +/- 1.9 h and 17.1 +/- 4.7 h after delivery. At the same time points women were asked to respond to a 17-item psychosocial stress and anxiety questionnaire. Women were called daily until OL occurred. Primiparous women had higher antepartum and early postpartum cortisol levels that were twice as high as those among multiparous women (P < 0.05). The parity differential in salivary cortisol concentrations vanished with time. General linear model multivariate analysis indicate that multiparous women (n = 77), irrespective of mode of delivery, had an earlier OL (P < 0.05) than primiparae who underwent emergency cesarean section deliveries (n = 11) (adjusted mean +/- SEM, 2.5 +/- 0.1 vs. 3.4 +/- 0.3 d postpartum, respectively). OL took longer to occur among multiparous women with prenatal salivary cortisol levels above (vs. below) the 40th percentile [3 +/- 0.2 (n = 28) vs. 2.4 +/- 0.2 d postpartum (n = 38), respectively; P = 0.02]. Thus, stress during labor and/or delivery is likely to be a significant risk factor for delayed OL in urban Guatemala.

Estudio multicentro sobre el aborto: país Guatemala

Con el objeto de conocer las características sociodemográficas de las mujeres, la morbilidad y mortalidad y el costo hospitalario relacionados con el tratamiento del aborto se identificó y siguió a 6650 mujeres que ingresaron durante un año en 6 hospitales de Guatemala para tratamiento de las complicaciones del aborto. Para poder diferenciar entre los abortos provocados y los espontáneos se implementó la metodología propuesta por la Organización Mundial de la Salud que reclasifica los casos d aborto en cuatro categorías: certeza, probable, posible y espontáneo. De acuerdo a la reclasificación 2.7 porciento de los abortos fueron provocados, certeza; 3.7 porciento probable, 44.1 porciento posible y 49.4 porciento espontáneos. Los resultados demuestran la importancia que tiene en la reclasificación la información que proporciona la mujer sobre la forma de de terminación del embarazo, si no se hubiera contado con ella la proporción de cetezas hubiera sido menor del 1 porciento. Por otra parte se hace ver que las categorías de probable y posible sólo representan una probabilidad no determinada de que el aborto haya sido provocado ya que el concepto de planificación del embarazo y la actitud de la mujer hacia un embaraazo no planeado depende del ambiente social, legal y religioso de cada región. En el caso particular de Guatemala a la categoría de posible debe ser entendida como la necesidad de educación sexual, de información en planificación familiar, de accesso a los servicios y a los métodos.