Political feasibility of scaling-up five evidence-informed HIV interventions in Pakistan: a policy analysis.

BACKGROUND: Drawing on policy theories, an assessment was made of the perceived political feasibility of scaling-up five evidence-based interventions to curb Pakistan's HIV epidemic: needle and syringe exchange programmes; targeted behaviour change communication; sexual health care for male and transgender sex workers; sexual and reproductive health care for female sex workers; and promoting and protecting the rights of those at greatest risk. METHOD: A questionnaire was emailed to 40 stakeholders and completed by 22. They expressed their level of agreement with 15 statements for each intervention (related to variables associated with policy success). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 respondents. RESULTS: The interventions represent considerable change from the status quo, but are perceived to respond to widely acknowledged problems. These perceptions, held by the HIV policy elite, need to be set in the context of the prevailing view that the AIDS response is not warranted given the small and concentrated nature of the epidemic and that the interventions do not resonate closely with values held by society. The interventions were perceived to be evidence-based, supported by at least one donor and subject to little resistance from frontline staff as they will be implemented by contracted non-government organisations. The results were mixed in terms of other factors determining political feasibility, including the extent to which interventions are easy to explain, exhibit simple technical features, require few additional funds, are supported and not opposed by powerful stakeholders. CONCLUSION: The interventions stand a good chance of being implemented although they depend on donor support. The prospects for scaling them would be improved by ongoing policy analysis and strengthening of domestic constituencies among the target groups.

Herpes simplex virus type 2: epidemiology and management options in developing countries.

Genital herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV2) is highly prevalent worldwide and an increasingly important cause of genital ulcer disease (GUD). Continued HSV2 transmission is facilitated by the large number of undiagnosed cases, the frequency of atypical disease and the occurrence of asymptomatic shedding. The lack of easy, affordable diagnostic methods and specific antiviral treatment in countries with low and middle income is of great concern, given the ability of GUD to enhance HIV transmission and acquisition. With rising HSV2 prevalence contributing to an increase in the proportion of GUD attributed to genital herpes in high-HIV prevalence settings, a safe and effective HSV vaccine is urgently needed. Meanwhile, multifaceted interventions are required to improve recognition of genital herpes, to prevent its spread and also to prevent its potential to promote HIV transmission in developing countries.

Herpes simplex virus type 2: epidemiology and management options in developing countries.

Genital herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV2) is highly prevalent worldwide and an increasingly important cause of genital ulcer disease (GUD). Continued HSV2 transmission is facilitated by the large number of undiagnosed cases, the frequency of atypical disease and the occurrence of asymptomatic shedding. The lack of easy, affordable diagnostic methods and specific antiviral treatment in countries with low and middle income is of great concern, given the ability of GUD to enhance HIV transmission and acquisition. With rising HSV2 prevalence contributing to an increase in the proportion of GUD attributed to genital herpes in high-HIV prevalence settings, a safe and effective HSV vaccine is urgently needed. Meanwhile, multifaceted interventions are required to improve recognition of genital herpes, to prevent its spread and also to prevent its potential to promote HIV transmission in developing countries.

Missing men's messages: does the reproductive health approach respond to men's sexual health needs?

PIP: After the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, the world has seen a shift in paradigm away from focused family planning programs towards reproductive and sexual health more generally. This article illustrates how the traditional emphasis on women's health and family planning can result in men's sexual health needs being overlooked. The rising concern and need for sexually transmitted infection (STI) control programs has evolved into a biomedical rationale to target men with health services. Planning appropriate health interventions requires more knowledge about how men perceive their sexual health. This paper presents data on male sexual health outcomes from two health intervention studies in South Asia (Orissa, India and rural Bangladesh). The similarities in men's perceptions of sexual health in these studies are discussed. While public sector programmers and health planners may be focusing their attention on the control of STI, men in both studies indicated that their major concerns relate more to matters of psychosexual disorders. The failure of public sector programs to address these issues in men may lead men to continue to seek care for all their sexual health problems including STIs in the unregulated and possibly ineffective private sector. The solution, therefore, lies on the establishment to address the need for fully comprehensive public sector sexual health services for men, just as they are now aiming to be for women.^ieng

Reproductive-tract infections in women in low-income, low-prevalence situations: assessment of syndromic management in Matlab, Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: In the control of reproductive-tract infections, including sexually transmitted infections (STIs), in low-income and middle-income countries, WHO recommends syndromic management for individuals with symptoms. This intervention was initially developed in areas where prevalence of such infections is high. We investigated the clinical effectiveness and cost of this approach among a group of women with a low prevalence of infection. METHODS: During a 5-month period, we investigated all women complaining of abnormal vaginal discharge and seeking care at maternal and child health/family-planning centres in Matlab, Bangladesh, for the presence of laboratory-diagnosed reproductive-tract infections and STIs. Syndromic diagnoses made by trained health-care workers were compared with laboratory diagnosis of infection. We then calculated the costs of treating women by means of the recommended WHO algorithm and an adapted algorithm incorporating use of a speculum and simple diagnostic tests. FINDINGS: The prevalence of endogenous infections among 320 women seen was 30%. Cervical infections (Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis) were found in only three women. The WHO algorithm had a high sensitivity (100%) but a low specificity (zero for bacterial vaginosis, candida, and Trichomonas vaginalis). The speculum-based algorithm had a low sensitivity (between zero and 59%) but a higher specificity (79-97%). Between 36% and 87% of costs would have been spent on uninfected women. INTERPRETATION: The high rate of overtreatment in the population studied carries both financial and social costs--the latter in potentially exposing women misdiagnosed as having an STI to threats of domestic disruption or even violence. We make recommendations for management programmes in areas of low STI prevalence and low income.

PIP: This paper presents a study on the syndromic management of reproductive tract infections among women in low-income and low-prevalence situations. Women complaining of abnormal vaginal discharge and seeking care at health centers in Matlab, Bangladesh, were examined for the presence of laboratory-diagnosed reproductive tract infections and sexually transmitted infections. In the results, 30% of 320 women were diagnosed as having endogenous infections. Overall result of the study revealed a low prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among these women. The WHO algorithm had 100% sensitivity but a low specificity, while the speculum-based algorithm had a low sensitivity (0-59%) but a higher specificity (79-97%). Cost analysis indicated that 87% of expenditure was wasted on overtreatment under the WHO algorithm, while only 36% of expenditure was wasted on overtreatment using the speculum-based algorithm. In conclusion, the development of simple, affordable and effective diagnostic tests should be prioritized by policymakers and public health specialists to ensure the provision of adequate services among the higher risk groups in society.

Providing sexual health services for men in Bangladesh.

PIP: International health advocates, planners, and policymakers agreed at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) that special efforts should be made to stress men's responsibility in family planning and reproductive health, and to promote their involvement in preventing HIV/STDs and unwanted and high-risk pregnancies. Bangladesh is one of many countries now trying to control reproductive tract infections (RTIs) and STDs by establishing public health programs. Bangladesh's system of primary health care (PHC) has long focused upon maternal and child health and family planning (MCH-FP) rather than the delivery of comprehensive care for all. This exclusive focus has led to the almost total exclusion of men as recipients of reproductive health care services at the PHC level. Following consultations with the community, 4 male sexual health clinics were established and opened between August 1995 and January 1996 for 1 afternoon/week, with opening hours later expanded to 1 day/week. The first such services opened in either the public or nongovernmental organization sectors, the clinics were located in existing MCH-FP buildings and open to all men in the communities free of charge. Male staff were trained according to WHO guidelines on the syndromic management of STDs. By the time they opened, awareness of the clinics' existence had been spread in the served communities through word-of-mouth and interpersonal communication networks. To better serve the large proportion of men with psychosexual problems such as impotence, premature ejaculation, and sexual dissatisfaction, 1 staff member studied male sexual health services in India for 3 months, after which he returned to train his 3 male colleagues.^ieng

Comparing the cost of spinal MR with conventional myelography and radiculography.

All spinal magnetic resonance imaging examinations carried out during a three month period were analysed retrospectively in order to determine the clinical reasons for the scan requests. Technical details of the examinations they received and the clinical profiles formed a data set which revealed 10 separate "Clinical groups" for management purposes. Hardware, salary and expendables were costed as though the imaging unit had been sited within a National Health Service radiology department. A spread sheet was designed capable of calculating costs per patient for a variety of types of working week and of different staffing structures, sensitive to the mixture of clinical groups referred for examination. The spreadsheet also accomodated straight line depreciation for hardware value and interest rates for borrowed capital. A second, prospectively observed, sample of spinal MR examinations was used to improve the accuracy of the timing of the length of patient examinations. Costs were compared with those for patients submitted for myelography and radiculography at the adjacent hospital during the same period. The comparison indicated that spinal MR was less costly than myelography and radiculography. The most important element of the extra cost of myelography related to the need to admit patients to hospital for at least one night for this examination because of the likelihood of headache and other common (though usually minor) complications following lumbar puncture and/or the injection of contrast medium. From the limited information that it was possible to obtain in the period of follow up, it appeared that MR had either been superior or equivalent to myelography or radiculography in all the clinical groups of patients where both could be tested. There were a number of groups in which no myelograms had been requested, presumably because clinical suspicions had pointed toward conditions like tumours, developmental abnormalities and demyelinating diseases in which neurologists and neurosurgeons have already made up their minds about the superiority of MR.