Predictors of Financial Toxicity Risk Among Patients Undergoing Cytoreductive Surgery with Hyperthermic Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy (CRS-HIPEC).

BACKGROUND: Cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (CRS-HIPEC) is the preferred treatment for select patients with peritoneal malignancies. However, the procedure is resource intensive and costly. This study aimed to determine the risk of financial toxicity for patients undergoing CRS-HIPEC. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients undergoing CRS-HIPEC at a single institution from 2016 to 2022. We utilized insurance status, out-of-pocket expenditures, and estimated post-subsistence income to determine risk of financial toxicity. A multivariable logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for financial toxicity. RESULTS: Our final study cohort consisted of 163 patients. Average age was 58 [standard deviation 10] years, and 52.8% (n = 86) were male. A total of 52 patients (31.9%) were at risk of financial toxicity. A total of 36 patients (22.1%) were from the lower income quartiles (first or second) and 127 patients (77.9%) were from the higher income quartiles (third or fourth). A total of 47 patients (29%) were insured by Medicare, and 116 patients (71%) had private insurance. The median out-of-pocket expenditure across the study cohort was $3500, with a median of $5000 ($3341-$7350) for the at-risk group and $3341 ($2500-$4022) for the not at-risk group (p < 0.001). Risk factors for financial toxicity included high out-of-pocket expenditures and a lower income quartile. CONCLUSIONS: An estimated one-third of patients undergoing CRS-HIPEC at our institution were at risk for financial toxicity. Several preoperative factors were associated with an increased risk and could be utilized to identify patients who might benefit from interventions.

Dissemination and Implementation of a Community Health Worker Intervention for Disparities in Palliative Care (DeCIDE PC): a study protocol for a hybrid type 1 randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: There are persistent racial and ethnic health disparities in end-of-life health outcomes in the United States. African American patients are less likely than White patients to access palliative care, enroll in hospice care, have documented goals of care discussions with their healthcare providers, receive adequate symptom control, or die at home. We developed Community Health Worker Intervention for Disparities in Palliative Care (DeCIDE PC) to address these disparities. DeCIDE PC is an integrated community health worker (CHW) palliative care intervention that uses community health workers (CHWs) as care team members to enhance the receipt of palliative care for African Americans with advanced cancer. The overall objectives of this study are to (1) assess the effectiveness of the DeCIDE PC intervention in improving palliative care outcomes amongst African American patients with advanced solid organ malignancy and their informal caregivers, and (2) develop generalizable knowledge on how contextual factors influence implementation to facilitate dissemination, uptake, and sustainability of the intervention. METHODS: We will conduct a multicenter, randomized, assessor-blind, parallel-group, pragmatic, hybrid type 1 effectiveness-implementation trial at three cancer centers across the United States. The DeCIDE PC intervention will be delivered over 6 months with CHW support tailored to the individual needs of the patient and caregiver. The primary outcome will be advance care planning. The treatment effect will be modeled using logistic regression. The secondary outcomes are quality of life, quality of communication, hospice care utilization, and patient symptoms. DISCUSSION: We expect the DeCIDE PC intervention to improve integration of palliative care, reduce multilevel barriers to care, enhance clinic and patient linkage to resources, and ultimately improve palliative care outcomes for African American patients with advanced cancer. If found to be effective, the DeCIDE PC intervention may be a transformative model with the potential to guide large-scale adoption of promising strategies to improve palliative care use and decrease disparities in end-of-life care for African American patients with advanced cancer in the United States. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05407844). First posted on June 7, 2022.

Palliative Care Curriculum and Training Plan for community health workers.

African American patients are less likely than White patients to access palliative care. Community health workers (CHWs) are non-clinical public health workers who may address this gap. We developed a Palliative Care Curriculum and Training Plan for CHWs as part of an ongoing randomised controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a CHW palliative care intervention for African American patients with advanced cancer. This study aimed to determine whether the Palliative Care Curriculum and Training Plan leads to gains in knowledge, perceived competence on CHW study-based tasks, and satisfaction among CHWs. The curriculum was delivered over 3 months using synchronous, asynchronous and experiential training components. CHWs were assessed through survey questionnaires and semistructured interviews. We trained a total of three CHWs, one from each of our enrolment sites: Johns Hopkins Hospital, TidalHealth Peninsula Regional and University of Alabama at Birmingham Hospital. CHWs demonstrated an increase in knowledge, with a mean pre-training test score of 85% (SD 10.49) and post-training test score of 96% (SD 4.17). The training led to increases in perceived competence among CHWs. Areas for future training were identified. This curriculum serves as a template for CHW training focused on palliative care, oncology and health disparities.

Influence of insurance status on the postoperative outcomes of cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC.

BACKGROUND: Cytoreductive surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (CRS/HIPEC) is increasingly performed for peritoneal surface malignancies but remains associated with significant morbidity. Scant research is available regarding the impact of insurance status on postoperative outcomes. METHODS: Patients undergoing CRS/HIPEC between 2000 and 2017 at 12 participating sites in the US HIPEC Collaborative were identified. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to compare the baseline characteristics, operative variables, and postoperative outcomes of patients with government, private, or no insurance. RESULTS: Among 2268 patients, 699 (30.8%) had government insurance, 1453 (64.0%) had private, and 116 (5.1%) were uninsured. Patients with government insurance were older, more likely to be non-white, and comorbid (p < 0.05). Patients with government (OR: 2.25, CI: 1.50-3.36, p < 0.001) and private (OR: 1.69, CI: 1.15-2.49, p = 0.008) insurance had an increased risk of complications on univariate analysis. There was no independent relationship on multivariate analysis. An American Society of Anesthesiologists score of 3 or 4, peritoneal carcinomatosis index score >15, completeness of cytoreduction score >1, and nonhome discharge were factors independently associated with a postoperative complication. CONCLUSION: While there were differences in postoperative outcomes between the three insurance groups on univariate analysis, there was no independent association between insurance status and postoperative complications after CRS/HIPEC.

Assessment of Caregivers' Burden When Caring for Patients With Pancreatic and Periampullary Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Family and other unpaid caregivers play an active role in the recovery of individuals with pancreatic and periampullary cancer after pancreatectomy. However, little is known about caregivers' experiences and how to better support them. METHODS: Caregivers accompanying patients to 1-month postpancreatectomy visits at 3 hospitals completed an electronic survey between November 2018 and February 2020. We examine measures of absenteeism and work productivity loss among the subset of caregivers who reported working for pay and comparatively assess caregiver experiences by employment status. All analyses were performed as 2-sided tests. RESULTS: Of 265 caregivers approached for study participation, 240 (90.6%) enrolled. Caregivers were primarily female (70.8% female, 29.2% male) and spouses (58.3%) or adult children (25.8%) of patients, with a median age of 60 years. Of the 240 caregivers included in the study, 107 (44.6%) worked for pay. Nearly half (44.4%) of working caregivers reported being absent from work because of caregiving amounting to a 14% loss in work hours. While at work, 58.9% of working caregivers reported increased work difficulty as a result of caregiving. Taken together, an estimated 59.7% loss in work productivity was experienced because of caregiving in the month following pancreatectomy. After adjustment for sociodemographic factors, working (vs nonworking) caregivers reported increased financial (odds ratio [OR] = 2.32; P = .04) and emotional (OR = 1.93; P = .04) difficulties and daily activity restrictions (OR = 1.85; P = .048). CONCLUSIONS: Working caregivers of patients with pancreatic and periampullary cancer experience negative impacts on work and productivity, and caregiving-related financial and emotional difficulties may be amplified. This study highlights the need for workplace policies to support unpaid cancer caregiving.

Disparities in Access to Oncologic Care in Pancreatic Cancer: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic cancer care is complex, and multiple disparities in receipt of therapies have been documented. The authors aimed to conduct a systematic review of the literature to critically assess and summarize disparities in access to oncologic therapies for pancreatic cancer. METHODS: A search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were performed for studies reporting disparities in access to oncologic care for pancreatic cancer. Primary research articles published in the United States from 2000 to 2020 were included. Data were independently extracted, and risk of bias was assessed using the modified Newcastle-Ottawa scale. RESULTS: The inclusion criteria were met by 47 studies. All the studies used retrospective data, with 70 % involving national database studies, 41 assessing the impact of race/ethnicity, 22 assessing the impact of socioeconomic status, 18 assessing the impact of insurance status, 23 assessing the impact of gender, 26 assessing the impact of age, and 3 assessing the impact of location on the delivery of cancer-directed therapies. Race, socioeconomic status, insurance status, gender, and age- based disparities in receipt of surgical resection, treatment at high-volume facilities and multimodal therapy for resectable pancreatic cancer, receipt of systemic chemotherapy for metastatic cancer, and receipt of expected standard-of-care treatment are reported. CONCLUSION: Significant sociodemographic disparities in access to equitable oncologic care exist along the continuum of pancreatic cancer care. Multiple patient, provider, and systemic factors contribute to these disparities. The ongoing study of these disparities is important to elucidate processes that may be targeted to improve access to equitable oncologic care for patients with pancreatic cancer.

Surgical palliative care disparities.

Surgical palliative care is an interdisciplinary treatment modality that aims to decrease suffering and improve the quality of life of seriously ill surgical patients. Although surgical palliative care is increasingly being found to positively impact patient quality of life, disparities in surgical palliative care remain poorly defined. While the field of medical palliative care has demonstrated certain racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, and geographic groups are at higher risks for receiving worse palliative care, there is no analogous consensus in the field of surgical palliative care. This is largely secondary to a paucity of research focus in this field. Given that the aforementioned disparities experienced by minoritized patient populations has led to significant morbidity, it is important to understand and call attention to disparities existing within the field of surgical palliative care as well. To advance the knowledge of current healthcare shortcomings and progress towards equitable surgical palliative care, this paper reviews the current state of surgical palliative care disparities evidence, details gaps in knowledge, and highlights priorities for future surgical palliative care research. The articles identified in this review noted disparate surgical palliative care access and outcomes across various racial/ethnic groups, age ranges, socioeconomic classes, hospital populations, and regions. However, evidence scarcity necessitates more robust research be performed to adequately identify at risk groups and understand the factors supporting disparity development.

Association of Medicaid Expansion with Pancreatic Cancer Treatment and Outcomes: Evidence from the National Cancer Database.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic- and demographic-based disparities exist in the treatment of pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Medicaid expansion (ME) may have an impact on these disparities. Analyses of patients with PDAC from the National Cancer Database (NCDB) were performed to examine the impact of ME on access to treatment and outcomes. METHODS: Patients with non-metastatic PDAC diagnosed between 2006 and 2016 were identified. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to evaluate factors associated with curative-intent surgical resection, multimodal therapy, treatment at a high-volume facility (HVF), and survival. RESULTS: The study identified 41,876 patients who met the criteria. Medicaid expansion was independently associated with curative-intent resection (odds ratio [OR] 1.54; 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.43-1.67; p < 0.001). In a multivariable analysis, ME was independently associated with multimodal therapy (OR 1.60; 95 % CI 1.44-1.76; p < 0.001) and treatment at an HVF (OR 1.57; 95 % CI 1.42-1.74; p < 0.001). Medicaid expansion was independently associated with improved 30-day mortality (OR 0.49; 95 % CI 0.34-0.79) and 90-day mortality (OR 0.48 95 % CI 0.35-0.59). Cox regression analysis demonstrated that after adjustment for other variables, ME status was associated with improved overall survival (hazard ratio [HR], 0.82; 95 % CI 0.73-0.90; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Medicaid expansion is associated with increased use of care processes that improve outcomes in PDAC, operative outcomes, and overall survival. The study data suggest that ME has helped to improve disparities in PDAC in ME states.

Patient Navigator and Community Health Worker Attitudes Toward End-of-Life Care.

Background: There are racial/ethnic disparities in hospice use and end-of-life (EOL) care outcomes in the United States. Although the use of community health workers (CHWs) and patient navigators (PNs) has been suggested as a means of reducing them, CHW/PNs' attitudes toward a palliative care philosophy remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine how personal attributes affect a CHW/PN's attitude toward EOL care. Methods: CHWs/PNs were recruited from two state-wide organizations and invited to complete an online survey. We collected information on demographics, attitudes toward the palliative care philosophy, and comfort with caring for patients at the EOL. Results: Of the 70 CHWs/PNs who responded to the survey, 82.5% identified as female, 56.4% identified as black, and 56.2% had a four-year college degree or higher. The mean score on a validated scale to assess attitudes toward EOL care was 33.5 (SD = 4.9; possible range, 8-40). Eighty percent strongly agreed or agreed with being open to discussing death with a dying patient. Higher self-efficacy scores were associated with more favorable attitudes toward hospice (r = 0.306, p = 0.016). Conclusions: CHWs/PNs have an overall favorable attitude toward the palliative care philosophy and may be inclined to providing EOL care.

On All Accounts: Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Limited Preoperative Optimization Efforts Before Colon Cancer Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Reports suggest that preoperative optimization of a patient's serious comorbidities is associated with a reduction in postoperative complications. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the cost and benefits of preoperative optimization, accounting for total costs associated with postoperative morbidity. DESIGN: This study is a decision tree cost-effectiveness analysis with probabilistic sensitivity analysis (10,000 iterations). SETTING: This is a hypothetical scenario of stage II colon cancer surgery. PATIENT: The simulated 65-year-old patient has left-sided, stage II colon cancer. INTERVENTION: Focused preoperative optimization targets high-risk comorbidities. OUTCOMES: Total discounted (3%) economic costs (US $2018), effectiveness (quality-adjusted life-years), incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio, cost/quality-adjusted life-years gained), and net monetary benefit. RESULTS: We calculated the per individual expected health care sector total cost of preoperative optimization and sequelae to be $12,395 versus $15,638 in those not optimized (net monetary benefit: $1.04 million versus $1.05 million). A nonoptimized patient attained an average 0.02 quality-adjusted life-years less than one optimized. Thus, preoperative optimization was the dominant strategy (lower total costs; higher quality-adjusted life-years). Probabilistic sensitivity analysis demonstrated 100% of simulations favoring preoperative optimization. The breakeven cost of optimization to remain cost-effective was $6421 per patient. LIMITATIONS: Generalizability must account for the lack of standardization among existing preoperative optimization efforts, and decision analysis methodology provides guidance for the average patient or general population, and is not patient-specific. CONCLUSIONS: Although currently not comprehensively reimbursed, focused preoperative optimization may reduce total costs of care while also reducing complications from colon cancer surgery. See Video Abstract at http://links.lww.com/DCR/B494. EN TODO CASO ANLISIS DE RENTABILIDAD DE LOS ESFUERZOS LIMITADOS DE OPTIMIZACIN PREOPERATORIA ANTES DE LA CIRUGA DE CNCER DE COLON: ANTECEDENTES:Los informes sugieren que la optimización preoperatoria de las comorbilidades graves de un paciente se asocia con una reducción de las complicaciones postoperatorias.OBJETIVO:El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar el costo y los beneficios de la optimización preoperatoria, teniendo en cuenta los costos totales asociados con la morbilidad postoperatoria.DISEÑO:Análisis de costo-efectividad de árbol de decisión con análisis de sensibilidad probabilístico (10,000 iteraciones).AJUSTE ENTORNO CLINICO:Escenario hipotético Cirugía de cáncer de colon en estadio II.PACIENTE:Paciente simulado de 65 años con cáncer de colon en estadio II del lado izquierdo.INTERVENCIÓN:Optimización preoperatoria enfocada dirigida a comorbilidades de alto riesgo.RESULTADOS:Costos económicos totales descontados (3%) (US $ 2018), efectividad (años de vida ajustados por calidad [AVAC]), relación costo-efectividad incremental (ICER, costo / AVAC ganado) y beneficio monetario neto (NMB).RESULTADOS:Calculamos que el costo total esperado por sector de atención médica individual de la optimización preoperatoria y las secuelas es de $ 12,395 versus $ 15,638 en aquellos no optimizados (NMB: $ 1.04 millones versus $ 1.05 millones, respectivamente). Un paciente no optimizado alcanzó un promedio de 0.02 AVAC menos que uno optimizado. Por lo tanto, la optimización preoperatoria fue la estrategia dominante (menores costos totales; mayores AVAC). El análisis de sensibilidad probabilístico demostró que el 100% de las simulaciones favorecían la optimización preoperatoria. El costo de equilibrio de la optimización para seguir siendo rentable fue de $ 6,421 por paciente.LIMITACIONES:La generalización debe tener en cuenta la falta de estandarización entre los esfuerzos de optimización preoperatorios existentes y esa metodología de análisis de decisiones proporciona una guía para el paciente promedio o la población general, no específica del paciente.CONCLUSIONES:Si bien actualmente no se reembolsa de manera integral, la optimización preoperatoria enfocada puede reducir los costos totales de la atención y al mismo tiempo reducir las complicaciones de la cirugía de cáncer de colon. Consulte Video Resumen en http://links.lww.com/DCR/B494.

Can Community Health Workers Increase Palliative Care Use for African American Patients? A Pilot Study.

PURPOSE: African American patients with cancer underutilize advance care planning (ACP) and palliative care (PC). This feasibility study investigated whether community health workers (CHWs) could improve ACP and PC utilization for African American patients with advanced cancer. METHODS: African American patients diagnosed with an advanced solid organ cancer (stage IV or stage III disease with a palliative performance score < 60%) were enrolled. Patients completed baseline surveys that assessed symptom burden and distress at baseline and 3 months post-CHW intervention. The CHW intervention consisted of a comprehensive assessment of multiple PC domains and social determinants of health. CHWs provided tailored support and education on the basis of iterative assessment of patient needs. Intervention feasibility was determined by patient and caregiver retention rate above 50% at 3 months. RESULTS: Over a 12-month period, 24 patients were screened, of which 21 were deemed eligible. Twelve patients participated in the study. Patient retention was high at 3 months (75%) and 6 months (66%). Following the CHW intervention, symptom assessment as measured by Edmonton Symptom Assessment System improved from 33.8 at baseline to 18.8 (P = .03). Psychological distress improved from 5.5 to 4.7 (P = .36), and depressive symptoms from 42.2 to 33.6 (P = .09), although this was not significant. ACP documentation improved from 25% at baseline to 75% at study completion. Sixty-seven percentage of patients were referred to PC, with 100% of three decedents using hospice. CONCLUSION: Utilization of CHWs to address PC domains and social determinants of health is feasible. Although study enrollment was identified as a potential barrier, most recruited patients were retained on study.

A Call to Action: Black/African American Women Surgeon Scientists, Where are They?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the representation of Black/AA women surgeons in academic medicine among U.S. medical school faculty and to assess the number of NIH grants awarded to Black/AA women surgeon-scientists over the past 2 decades. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Despite increasing ethnic/racial and sex diversity in U.S. medical schools and residencies, Black/AA women have historically been underrepresented in academic surgery. METHODS: A retrospective review of the Association of American Medical Colleges 2017 Faculty Roster was performed and the number of grants awarded to surgeons from the NIH (1998-2017) was obtained. Data from the Association of American Medical Colleges included the total number of medical school surgery faculty, academic rank, tenure status, and department Chair roles. Descriptive statistics were performed. RESULTS: Of the 15,671 U.S. medical school surgical faculty, 123 (0.79%) were Black/AA women surgeons with only 11 (0.54%) being tenured faculty. When stratified by academic rank, 15 (12%) Black/AA women surgeons were instructors, 73 (59%) were assistant professors, 19 (15%) were associate professors, and 10 (8%) were full professors of surgery. Of the 372 U.S. department Chairs of surgery, none were Black/AA women. Of the 9139 NIH grants awarded to academic surgeons from 1998 and 2017, 31 (0.34%) grants were awarded to fewer than 12 Black/AA women surgeons. CONCLUSION: A significant disparity in the number of Black/AA women in academic surgery exists with few attaining promotion to the rank of professor with tenure and none ascending to the role of department Chair of surgery. Identifying and removing structural barriers to promotion, NIH grant funding, and academic advancement of Black/AA women as leaders and surgeon-scientists is needed.

Optimal Surveillance Frequency After CRS/HIPEC for Appendiceal and Colorectal Neoplasms: A Multi-institutional Analysis of the US HIPEC Collaborative.

BACKGROUND: No guidelines exist for surveillance following cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (CRS/HIPEC) for appendiceal and colorectal cancer. The primary objective was to define the optimal surveillance frequency after CRS/HIPEC. METHODS: The U.S. HIPEC Collaborative database (2000-2017) was reviewed for patients who underwent a CCR0/1 CRS/HIPEC for appendiceal or colorectal cancer. Radiologic surveillance frequency was divided into two categories: low-frequency surveillance (LFS) at q6-12mos or high-frequency surveillance (HFS) at q2-4mos. Primary outcome was overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Among 975 patients, the median age was 55 year, 41% were male: 31% had non-invasive appendiceal (n = 301), 45% invasive appendiceal (n = 435), and 24% colorectal cancer (CRC; n = 239). With a median follow-up time of 25 mos, the median time to recurrence was 12 mos. Despite less surveillance, LFS patients had no decrease in median OS (non-invasive appendiceal: 106 vs. 65 mos, p < 0.01; invasive appendiceal: 120 vs. 73 mos, p = 0.02; colorectal cancer [CRC]: 35 vs. 30 mos, p = 0.8). LFS patients had lower median PCI scores compared with HFS (non-invasive appendiceal: 10 vs. 19; invasive appendiceal: 10 vs. 14; CRC: 8 vs. 11; all p < 0.01). However, on multivariable analysis, accounting for PCI score, LFS was still not associated with decreased OS for any histologic type (non-invasive appendiceal: hazard ratio [HR]: 0.28, p = 0.1; invasive appendiceal: HR: 0.73, p = 0.42; CRC: HR: 1.14, p = 0.59). When estimating annual incident cases of CRS/HIPEC at 375 for non-invasive appendiceal, 375 invasive appendiceal and 4410 colorectal, LFS compared with HFS for the initial two post-operative years would potentially save $13-19 M/year to the U.S. healthcare system. CONCLUSIONS: Low-frequency surveillance after CRS/HIPEC for appendiceal or colorectal cancer is not associated with decreased survival, and when considering decreased costs, may optimize resource utilization.

Increased Healthcare Utilization for Medical Comorbidities Prior to Surgery Improves Postoperative Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of optimization of preoperative comorbidities by nonsurgical clinicians on short-term postoperative outcomes. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Preoperative comorbidities can have substantial effects on operative risk and outcomes. The modifiability of these comorbidity-associated surgical risks remains poorly understood. METHODS: We identified patients with a major comorbidity (eg, diabetes, heart failure) undergoing an elective colectomy in a multipayer national administrative database (2010-2014). Patients were included if they could be matched to a preoperative surgical clinic visit within 90 days of an operative intervention by the same surgeon. The explanatory variable of interest ("preoperative optimization") was defined by whether the patient was seen by an appropriate nonsurgical clinician between surgical consultation and subsequent surgery. We assessed the impact of an optimization visit on postoperative complications with use of propensity score matching and multilevel, multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: We identified 4531 colectomy patients with a major potentially modifiable comorbidity (propensity weighted and matched effective sample size: 6037). After matching, the group without an optimization visit had a higher rate of complications (34.6% versus 29.7%, P = 0.001). An optimization visit conferred a 31% reduction in the odds of a complication (P < 0.001) in an adjusted analysis. Median preoperative costs increased by $684 (P < 0.001) in the optimized group, and a complication increased total costs of care by $14,724 (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: We demonstrated an association between use of nonsurgical clinician visits by comorbid patients prior to surgery and a significantly lower rate of complications. These findings support the prospective study of preoperative optimization as a potential mechanism for improving postoperative outcomes.