Simplified processing and rapid quantification of buprenorphine, norbuprenorphine, and their conjugated metabolites in human plasma using UPLC-MS/MS: Assessment of buprenorphine exposure during opioid use disorder treatment.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic neurobehavioral ailment and is prevalent in pregnancy. OUD is commonly treated with methadone or buprenorphine (BUP). Pregnancy is known to alter the pharmacokinetics of drugs and may lead to changes in drug exposure and response. A simple, specific, and sensitive analytical method for measuring the parent drug and its metabolites is valuable for assessing the impact of pregnancy on drug exposure. A new liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method that utilized a simple protein precipitation procedure for sample preparation and four deuterated internal standards for quantification was developed and validated for BUP and its major metabolites (norbuprenorphine [NBUP], buprenorphine-glucuronide [BUP-G], and norbuprenorphine-glucuronide [NBUP-G]) in human plasma. The standard curve was linear over the concentration range of 0.05-100 ng/mL for BUP and NBUP, and 0.1-200 ng/mL for BUP-G and NBUP-G. Intra- and inter-day bias and precision were within ±15% of nominal values for all the analytes. Quality controls assessed at four levels showed high recovery consistently for all the analytes with minimal matrix effect. Adequate analyte stability was observed at various laboratory conditions tested. Overall, the developed method is simple, sensitive, accurate and reproducible, and was successfully applied for the quantification of BUP and its metabolites in plasma samples collected from pregnant women in a clinical study assessing BUP exposure during OUD treatment.

Assessment of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Use of Medication to Treat Opioid Use Disorder Among Pregnant Women in Massachusetts.

Importance: Racial and ethnic disparities persist across key health and substance use treatment outcomes for mothers and infants. The use of medications, such as methadone or buprenorphine, for the treatment of opioid use disorder (OUD) has been associated with improvements in the outcomes of mothers and infants; however, only half of all pregnant women with OUD receive these medications. The extent to which maternal race or ethnicity is associated with the use of medication to treat OUD, the duration of the use of medication to treat OUD, and the type of medication used to treat OUD during pregnancy are unknown. Objective: To examine the extent to which maternal race and ethnicity is associated with the use of medications for the treatment of OUD in the year before delivery among pregnant women with OUD. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study used a linked population-level statewide data set of pregnant women with OUD who delivered a live infant in Massachusetts between October 1, 2011, and December 31, 2015. Of 274 234 total deliveries identified, 5247 deliveries among women with indicators of having OUD were included in the analysis. Maternal race and ethnicity were defined as white non-Hispanic, black non-Hispanic, or Hispanic based on self-reported data on birth certificates. Main Outcomes and Measures: Main outcomes were the receipt of any medication for OUD, the consistency of the use of medication (at least 6 continuous months of use before delivery, inconsistent use, or no use) for the treatment of OUD, and the type of medication (methadone or buprenorphine) used to treat OUD. Multivariable models were adjusted for maternal sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, and any significant interactions between the covariates and race and ethnicity. Results: The sample included 5247 pregnant women with OUD who delivered a live infant in Massachusetts during the study period. The mean (SD) maternal age at delivery was 28.7 (5.0) years; 4551 women (86.7%) were white non-Hispanic, 462 women (8.8%) were Hispanic, and 234 women (4.5%) were black non-Hispanic. A total of 3181 white non-Hispanic women (69.9%) received any type of medication for the treatment of OUD in the year before delivery compared with 228 Hispanic women (49.4%) and 108 black non-Hispanic women (46.2%). Compared with white non-Hispanic women, black non-Hispanic and Hispanic women had a substantially lower likelihood (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.37; 95% CI, 0.28-0.49 and aOR, 0.42; 95% CI, 0.35-0.52, respectively) of receiving any medication for the treatment of OUD. Stratification by maternal age identified greater disparities among younger women. Black non-Hispanic and Hispanic women also had a lower likelihood (aOR, 0.24; 95% CI, 0.17-0.35 and aOR, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.27-0.44, respectively) of consistent use of medication for the treatment of OUD compared with white non-Hispanic women. With respect to the type of medication used to treat OUD, black non-Hispanic and Hispanic women had a lower likelihood (aOR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.40-0.90 and aOR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.58-1.01, respectively) than white non-Hispanic women of receiving buprenorphine treatment compared with methadone treatment. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found racial and ethnic disparities in the use of medications to treat OUD during pregnancy, with black non-Hispanic and Hispanic women significantly less likely to use medications consistently or at all compared with white non-Hispanic women. Further investigation of patient, clinician, treatment program, and system-level factors associated with these findings is warranted.

Five-Year Outcomes Among Medicaid-Enrolled Children With In Utero Opioid Exposure.

The health of women and children affected by opioid use disorder is a priority for state Medicaid programs. Little is known about longer-term outcomes among Medicaid-enrolled children exposed to opioids in utero. We examined well-child visit use and diagnoses of pediatric complex chronic conditions in the first five years of life among children with opioid exposure, tobacco exposure, or neither exposure in utero. The sample consisted of 82,329 maternal-child dyads in the Pennsylvania Medicaid program in which the children were born in the period 2008-11 and followed up for five years. Children with in utero opioid exposure had a lower predicted probability of recommended well-child visit use at age fifteen months (42.1 percent) compared to those with tobacco exposure (54.1 percent) and those with neither exposure (55.7 percent). Children with in utero opioid exposure had a predicted probability of being diagnosed with a pediatric complex chronic condition similar to that among children with tobacco exposure and those with neither exposure (20.4 percent, 18.7 percent, and 20.2 percent, respectively). Our findings were consistent when we examined a subgroup of opioid-exposed children identified as having neonatal opioid withdrawal symptoms.

Association between Opioid Prescribing in Medicare and Pharmaceutical Company Gifts by Physician Specialty.

BACKGROUND: The association between pharmaceutical industry promotion and physician opioid prescribing is poorly understood. Whether the influence of industry gifts on prescribing varies by specialty is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between opioid-related gifts to physicians and opioid prescribing in the subsequent year across 7 physician specialties. DESIGN: Panel study using data from 2014 to 2016. PARTICIPANTS: 236,103 unique Medicare Part D physicians (389,622 physician-years) who received any gifts from pharmaceutical companies measured using Open Payments and prescribed opioids in the subsequent year. MAIN MEASURES: Amounts paid by pharmaceutical companies for opioid-related gifts including meals and lodging; quartile of opioid prescribing as a percent of total prescribing compared with other same-specialty physicians. KEY RESULTS: In 2014-2015, 14.1% of physician received opioid-related gifts from the industry with 2.6% receiving > $100. Gifts varied by specialty and were concentrated among two pharmaceutical companies responsible for 60% of the value of opioid-related gifts. Receiving opioid-related gifts was associated with greater prescribing of opioids compared with same-specialty physicians in the next year. Primary care physicians are nearly 3.5 times as likely to be in the highest quartile of prescribing versus the lower quartiles if they were paid ≥ $100. Psychiatrists and neurologists were 7 to 13 times as likely to be in a higher quartile of opioid prescribing compared with colleagues who were paid $0 in the preceding year. CONCLUSIONS: The value of opioid-related gifts given to physicians varies substantially by provider specialty, as does the relationship between payment amounts and prescriber behavior in the following year.

Medication-Assisted Treatment Use Among Pregnant Women With Opioid Use Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate temporal trends in medication-assisted treatment use among pregnant women with opioid use disorder. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using Pennsylvania Medicaid administrative data. Trends in medication-assisted treatment use, opioid pharmacotherapy (methadone and buprenorphine) and behavioral health counselling, were calculated using pharmacy records and procedure codes. Cochrane-Armitage tests evaluated linear trends in characteristics of pregnant women using methadone compared with buprenorphine. RESULTS: In total, we evaluated 12,587 pregnancies among 10,741 women with opioid use disorder who had a live birth between 2009 and 2015. Across all years, 44.1% of pregnant women received no opioid pharmacotherapy, 27.1% used buprenorphine, and 28.8% methadone. Fewer than half of women had any behavioral health counseling during pregnancy. The adjusted prevalence of methadone use declined from 31.6% (95% CI 29.3-33.9%) in 2009 to 25.2% (95% CI 23.3-27.1%) in 2015, whereas the adjusted prevalence of buprenorphine use increased from 15.8% (95% CI 13.9-17.8%) to 30.9% (95% CI 28.8-33.0%). Greater increases in buprenorphine use were found in geographic regions with large metropolitan centers, such as the Southwest (plus 24.9%) and the Southeast (plus 12.0%), compared with largely rural regions, such as the New West (plus 5.2%). In 2015, the adjusted number of behavioral health counseling visits during pregnancy was 3.4 (95% CI 2.6-4.1) among women using buprenorphine, 4.0 (95% CI 3.3-4.7) among women who did not use pharmacotherapy, and 6.4 (95% CI 4.9-7.9) among women using methadone. CONCLUSION: Buprenorphine use among Medicaid-enrolled pregnant women with opioid use disorder increased significantly over time, with a small concurrent decline in methadone use. Behavioral health counseling use was low, but highest among women using methadone.

The impact of Medicaid expansion on postpartum health care utilization among pregnant women with opioid use disorder.

Background: Opioid use disorder (OUD) during pregnancy has increased dramatically over the past decade, as have associated adverse maternal health outcomes. Although Medicaid has long been the largest payer for deliveries in the United States, states' decisions to expand Medicaid eligibility to low-income adults has the potential to increase access to care for women in the postpartum period. This study aimed to determine the impact of the 2015 Pennsylvania Medicaid expansion on postpartum insurance coverage and preventive care utilization among pregnant women with opioid use disorder (OUD). Methods: In 2017, we conducted a retrospective cohort study using 2013-2015 administrative Medicaid data provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Human Services. We identified 1562 women with opioid use disorder who had a live birth delivery in a pre-Medicaid expansion or post-expansion study period. We compared length of continuous enrollment in Medicaid following delivery, postpartum visit attendance, and contraception initiation between groups. Results: More women in the post-expansion group remained enrolled in Medicaid at 300 days postpartum, relative to the pre-expansion group (87% vs. 81%). Medicaid expansion was not associated with differences in postpartum visit attendance or contraceptive use. However, women who remained enrolled in Medicaid for at least 300 days post delivery had an increased odds of postpartum visit attendance (odds ratio [OR]: 1.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04, 2.4). Conclusion: The rate of continuous Medicaid enrollment among postpartum women with OUD was significantly higher after expansion, whereas rates of preventive care utilization were unaffected. Although improving insurance coverage for women with OUD is an important step to improve access to recommended preventive care, additional efforts are needed to ensure utilization of such care.

Adherence trajectories of buprenorphine therapy among pregnant women in a large state Medicaid program in the United States.

PURPOSE: Little is known about the longitudinal patterns of buprenorphine adherence among pregnant women with opioid use disorder, especially when late initiation, nonadherence, or early discontinuation of buprenorphine during pregnancy may increase the risk of adverse outcomes. We aimed to identify distinct trajectories of buprenorphine use during pregnancy, and factors associated with these trajectories in Medicaid-enrolled pregnant women. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study included 2361 Pennsylvania Medicaid enrollees aged 15 to 46 having buprenorphine therapy during pregnancy and a live birth between 2008 and 2015. We used group-based trajectory models to identify buprenorphine use patterns in the 40 weeks prior to delivery and 12 weeks postdelivery. Multivariable multinomial logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with specific trajectories. RESULTS: Six distinct trajectories were identified. Four groups initiated buprenorphine during the first trimester of the pregnancy (early initiators): 31.6% with persistently high adherence, 15.1% with moderate-to-high adherence, 10.5% with declining adherence, and 16.7% with early discontinuation. Two groups did not initiate buprenorphine until midsecond or third trimester (late initiators): 13.5% had moderate-to-high adherence and 12.6% had low-to-moderate adherence. Factors significantly associated with late initiation and discontinuation were younger age, non-white race, residents of rural counties, fewer outpatient visits, more frequent emergency department visits and hospitalizations, and lower buprenorphine daily dose. CONCLUSIONS: Six buprenorphine treatment trajectories during pregnancy were identified in this population-based Medicaid cohort, with 25% of women initiating buprenorphine late during pregnancy. Understanding trajectories of buprenorphine use and factors associated with discontinuation/nonadherence may guide integration of behavioral treatment with obstetrical/gynecological care to improve buprenorphine treatment during pregnancy.

Postpartum contraceptive use and interpregnancy interval among women with opioid use disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe postpartum contraceptive utilization patterns among women with OUD and evaluate the relationship between postpartum contraceptive method choice and interpregnancy interval. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted with women in Pennsylvania Medicaid with a diagnosis of OUD between 2008 and 2013. Postpartum contraceptive use within 90 days after delivery was identified through claims data and categorized by effectiveness (highly-effective, effective, and no method observed). Kaplan-Meier time-to-event analyses and multivariable-adjusted marginal Cox regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between postpartum contraceptive method choice and interpregnancy interval. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify risk factors predictive of a short interpregnancy interval (≤18 months). RESULTS: We identified 7805 women (9260 pregnancies) who had a diagnosis of OUD. Nearly three-quarters (74.5%) had no contraceptive method observed, 18.1% received an effective method, and only 7.4% received a highly-effective method (LARC or female sterilization) during the postpartum period. In Kaplan-Meier analyses, no significant differences were found in the time-to-next pregnancy interval when an effective contraceptive method vs. no contraceptive method was used. In multivariable analysis, predictors of a significantly longer interpregnancy interval were LARC use (HR 0.43, 95% CI 0.26-0.69), gestational hypertension (HR 0.80, 95% CI 0.65-0.97), and age (HR 0.95, 95% CI 0.94-0.96). Approximately 20% of women with OUD had a short interpregnancy interval. CONCLUSION: Few women with OUD use highly-effective postpartum contraception, which is protective against short interpregnancy intervals.

Filled Prescriptions for Opioids After Vaginal Delivery.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of filled opioid prescriptions after vaginal delivery. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 164,720 Medicaid-enrolled women in Pennsylvania who delivered a liveborn neonate vaginally from 2008 to 2013, excluding women who used opioids during pregnancy or who had an opioid use disorder. We assessed overall filled prescriptions as well as filled prescriptions in the presence or absence of the following pain-inducing conditions: bilateral tubal ligation, perineal laceration, or episiotomy. Outcomes included a binary measure of whether a woman had any opioid prescription fill 5 days or less after delivery and, among those women, a second opioid prescription fill 6-60 days after delivery. Among women with no coded pain-inducing conditions at delivery, we used multivariable logistic regression with standard errors clustered to account for within-hospital correlation to assess the association between patient characteristics and odds of a filled opioid prescription. RESULTS: Twelve percent of women (n=18,131) filled an outpatient opioid prescription 5 days or less after vaginal delivery; among those women, 14% (n=2,592, or 1.6% of the total) filled a second opioid prescription 6-60 days after delivery. Of the former, 5,110 (28.2%) had one or more pain-inducing conditions. Predictors of filled opioid prescriptions with no observed pain-inducing condition at delivery included tobacco use (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.3, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2-1.4) and a mental health condition (adjusted OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.2-1.4). Having a diagnosis of substance use disorder other than opioid use disorder was not associated with filling an opioid prescription 5 days or less after delivery, but was associated with having a second opioid prescription 6-60 days after delivery (adjusted OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.2-1.6). CONCLUSION: More than 1 in 10 Medicaid-enrolled women fill an outpatient opioid prescription after vaginal delivery. National opioid-prescribing recommendations for common obstetrics procedures such as vaginal delivery are warranted.

Opioid Use Disorder in Pregnancy: Health Policy and Practice in the Midst of an Epidemic.

Opioid abuse among pregnant women has reached epidemic proportions and has influenced maternal and child health policy at the federal, state, and local levels. As a result, we review the current state of opioid use in pregnancy and evaluate recent legislative and health policy initiatives designed to combat opioid addiction in pregnancy. We emphasize the importance of safe and responsible opioid-prescribing practices, expanding the availability and accessibility of medication-assisted treatment and standardizing care for neonates at risk of neonatal abstinence syndrome. Efforts to penalize pregnant women and negative consequences for disclosing substance use to health care providers are harmful and may prevent women from seeking prenatal care and other beneficial health care services during pregnancy. Instead, health care providers should advocate for health policy informed by scientific research and evidence-based practice to reduce the burden of prenatal opioid abuse and optimize outcomes for mothers and their neonates.

Surgical Site Infection following Cesarean Delivery: Patient, Provider, and Procedure-Specific Risk Factors.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to identify risk factors for cesarean delivery (CD) surgical site infection (SSI). study design: Retrospective analysis of 2,739 CDs performed at the University of Pittsburgh in 2011. CD SSIs were defined using National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) criteria. Chi-square test and t-test were used for bivariate analyses and multivariate logistic regression was used to identify SSI risk factors. RESULTS: Of 2,739 CDs, 178 (6.5%) were complicated by SSI. Patients with a SSI were more likely to have Medicaid, have resident physicians perform the CD, an American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class of ≥ 3, chorioamnionitis, tobacco use, and labor before CD. In multivariable analysis, labor (odds ratio [OR], 2.35; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.65-3.38), chorioamnionitis (OR, 2.24; 95% CI, 1.25-3.83), resident teaching service (OR, 2.15; 95% CI, 1.54-3.00), tobacco use (OR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.04-2.70), ASA class ≥ 3 (OR, 1.61; 95% CI, 1.06-2.39), and CDs performed for nonreassuring fetal status (OR, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.26-0.67) were significantly associated with CD SSI. CONCLUSION: Multiple patient, provider, and procedure-specific risk factors contribute to CD SSI risk which may be targeted in infection-control efforts.

Strong Start for Mothers and Newborns: implications for prenatal care delivery.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In February 2012, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services announced a 4-year initiative to test new approaches to prenatal care delivery to improve rates of preterm birth for women enrolled in Medicaid. The Strong Start for Mothers and Newborns initiative was designed to achieve this goal through two strategies: first, a public awareness campaign designed to reduce the rate of elective deliveries prior to 39-week gestation, and second, a funding opportunity to test the effectiveness of enhanced prenatal care models designed to reduce the incidence of low-birth-weight infants among pregnant Medicaid beneficiaries. This article reviews previous prenatal care expansion efforts and provides insights into the alternative prenatal care delivery models currently being tested for low-income patient populations at high risk for adverse birth outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS: Alternative prenatal care models, such as prenatal home visitation and group prenatal care for patients at high risk for adverse birth outcomes, may provide more efficient and effective care than the traditional, predominantly medical model of prenatal care delivery. SUMMARY: The authors discuss the relationship between prenatal care utilization and adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight, and current efforts to reinvent prenatal care content, structure and delivery.

Disparate patterns of prenatal care utilization stratified by medical and psychosocial risk.

To evaluate patterns of prenatal care utilization stratified by medical and psychosocial risk. A retrospective cohort of 786 pregnant women who subsequently delivered live births from 1999 to 2003 at the University of Michigan were classified into high medical, high psychosocial, high medical and high psychosocial (dual high risk) and low-risk pregnancies. Chi-square and logistic regression analyses assessed the association between risk and prenatal care utilization using the Kotelchuck Index. Of 786 pregnancies, 202 (25.7%) were high medical risk, 178 (22.7%) were high psychosocial risk, 227 (28.9%) were dual high risk and 179 (22.8%) were low-risk. Over 31% of dual high risk and 25% of high medical risk pregnancies received "adequate plus" prenatal care versus 10% of high psychosocial risk pregnancies. In multivariate analyses, adjusted for risk, race and insurance, high psychosocial risk pregnancies (OR = 1.69; 95% CI 1.06-2.72) were significantly more likely to receive inadequate prenatal care than care of greater intensity. Many high psychosocial risk pregnancies do not receive adequate prenatal care.

Neonatal abstinence syndrome and associated health care expenditures: United States, 2000-2009.

CONTEXT: Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is a postnatal drug withdrawal syndrome primarily caused by maternal opiate use. No national estimates are available for the incidence of maternal opiate use at the time of delivery or NAS. OBJECTIVES: To determine the national incidence of NAS and antepartum maternal opiate use and to characterize trends in national health care expenditures associated with NAS between 2000 and 2009. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS: A retrospective, serial, cross-sectional analysis of a nationally representative sample of newborns with NAS. The Kids' Inpatient Database (KID) was used to identify newborns with NAS by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) code. The Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) was used to identify mothers using diagnosis related groups for vaginal and cesarean deliveries. Clinical conditions were identified using ICD-9-CM diagnosis codes. NAS and maternal opiate use were described as an annual frequency per 1000 hospital births. Missing hospital charges (<5% of cases) were estimated using multiple imputation. Trends in health care utilization outcomes over time were evaluated using variance-weighted regression. All hospital charges were adjusted for inflation to 2009 US dollars. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence of NAS and maternal opiate use, and related hospital charges. RESULTS: The separate years (2000, 2003, 2006, and 2009) of national discharge data included 2920 to 9674 unweighted discharges with NAS and 987 to 4563 unweighted discharges for mothers diagnosed with antepartum opiate use, within data sets including 784,191 to 1.1 million discharges for children (KID) and 816,554 to 879,910 discharges for all ages of delivering mothers (NIS). Between 2000 and 2009, the incidence of NAS among newborns increased from 1.20 (95% CI, 1.04-1.37) to 3.39 (95% CI, 3.12-3.67) per 1000 hospital births per year (P for trend < .001). Antepartum maternal opiate use also increased from 1.19 (95% CI, 1.01-1.35) to 5.63 (95% CI, 4.40-6.71) per 1000 hospital births per year (P for trend < .001). In 2009, newborns with NAS were more likely than all other hospital births to have low birthweight (19.1%; SE, 0.5%; vs 7.0%; SE, 0.2%), have respiratory complications (30.9%; SE, 0.7%; vs 8.9%; SE, 0.1%), and be covered by Medicaid (78.1%; SE, 0.8%; vs 45.5%; SE, 0.7%; all P < .001). Mean hospital charges for discharges with NAS increased from $39,400 (95% CI, $33,400-$45,400) in 2000 to $53,400 (95% CI, $49,000-$57,700) in 2009 (P for trend < .001). By 2009, 77.6% of charges for NAS were attributed to state Medicaid programs. CONCLUSION: Between 2000 and 2009, a substantial increase in the incidence of NAS and maternal opiate use in the United States was observed, as well as hospital charges related to NAS.

Preventing Low Birthweight: 25 years, prenatal risk, and the failure to reinvent prenatal care.

In 2010, Preventing Low Birthweight celebrated it 25th anniversary. The report, one of the most influential policy statements ever issued regarding obstetric health care delivery, linked prenatal care to a reduction in low birthweight (LBW). Medicaid coverage for prenatal care services was subsequently expanded and resulted in increased prenatal care utilization. However, the rate of LBW failed to decrease. This well-intentioned expansion of prenatal care services did not change the structure of prenatal care. A single, standardized prenatal care model, largely ineffective in the prevention of LBW, was expanded to a heterogeneous group of patients with a variety of medical and psychosocial risk factors. Reinventing prenatal care as a flexible model, with content, frequency, and timing tailored to maternal and fetal risk, may improve adverse birth outcomes. Risk-appropriate prenatal care may improve the effectiveness of prenatal care for high-risk patients and the efficiency of prenatal care delivery for low-risk patients.

A will without a way: barriers and facilitators to exercise during pregnancy of low-income, African American women.

The objective of the authors in this study was to identify pregnant, low-income African American women's barriers and facilitators to exercise during pregnancy. A series of six focus groups with pregnant African American women were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Focus group transcripts were qualitatively analyzed for major themes and independently coded for barriers and facilitators to exercise during pregnancy. A total of 34 pregnant, African American women participated in six focus groups from June through October of 2007. The majority of women were single (94%), had only a high school education (67%), received Medicaid (100%) and had a mean body mass index of 33 kg/m(2). All participants believed that exercise was beneficial during their pregnancy. However, participants faced multiple barriers including: (1) individual, (2) information, (3) resource, and (4) socio-cultural. African American women also described two facilitators to increase exercise during pregnancy: (1) group exercise classes, and (2) increasing the number of safe, low-cost exercise facilities in their communities. African American women living in low socioeconomic communities face several barriers to exercise during pregnancy. Targeted interventions to overcome barriers and facilitate exercise for this patient population should focus on increasing education from providers regarding the type and frequency of exercise recommended during pregnancy, enhancing social support networks with group exercise programs, and providing affordable and convenient locations to exercise.