Assessment of the Relationship Between Inflammation and Glomerular Filtration Rate.

Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global health problem. As it progresses to end stages, renal replacement therapy is required but ultimately, the best treatment is transplantation. Decreased renal function has been associated with an inflammatory state associated to primary CKD and in kidney transplant recipients (KTRs). Objective: To establish how the serum concentrations of some cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-2, IL-8, IL-22, IL-17α, interferon-gamma, IL-4, and transforming growth factor-ß, correlate with various CKD stages. Methods: One hundred and forty-one KTRs between the ages of 18 and 75 years were included in the study. We also included 112 live kidney donors, 37 CKD PGCKD+3, and 76 GPhealthy. Participants were grouped according to their glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and their circulating cytokine levels, previously quantified by ELISA. Results: By linear regression analysis, we established the relation of each cytokine with the GFR. Transforming growth factor-ß correlated positively with the GFR in the study population, except in healthy individuals. A negative correlation of IL-8 and IL-17α and GFR was found in all cases. Conclusions: Whether these cytokines (IL-8 and IL-17α) could be used as inflammatory biomarkers indicating CKD progression, regardless of the type of population, remains to be prospectively determined.

Contexte: L'insuffisance rénale chronique (IRC) est un problème de santé mondial. Une thérapie de remplacement rénal est nécessaire au fur et à mesure que la maladie évolue vers les stades terminaux. Mais, en définitive, le meilleur traitement reste la transplantation. La réduction de la fonction rénale a été associée à un état inflammatoire associé à l'IRC primaire; une association observée aussi chez les receveurs d'une greffe de rein. Objectif: Déterminer la façon dont les concentrations sériques de certaines cytokines, notamment IL-2, IL-8, IL-22, IL-17a, IFN-γ, IL-4 et TGF-ß, corrèlent avec divers stades de l'IRC. Méthodologie: Ont été inclus dans l'étude 141 receveurs d'une greffe rénale âgés de 18 à 75 ans, 112 donneurs vivants de rein, 37 personnes atteintes d'IRC (PGIRC+3) et 76 personnes en bonne santé (PGen santé). Les sujets ont été regroupés en fonction de leur débit de filtration glomérulaire (DFGe) et de leur taux de cytokines en circulation, quantifiés préalablement par ELISA. Résultats: Une analyse de régression linéaire a servi à établir la relation entre chaque cytokine et le DFGe. Dans la population étudiée, une corrélation positive a été observée entre TGF-ß et le DFGe, sauf chez les individus sains. Dans tous les cas, la corrélation s'est avérée négative entre le DFGe et les taux d'IL-8 et d'IL-17a. Conclusion: Il reste à déterminer prospectivement si ces cytokines (IL-8 et IL-17a) pourraient être utilisées comme biomarqueurs inflammatoires pour indiquer la progression de l'IRC, quelle que soit la population.

Desigualdad social en México en el uso de servicios de tamizaje en adultos: un análisis de las encuestas nacionales de salud 2006 y 2012 / Social inequality in the use of screening tests in Mexico: an analysis of the national health surveys 2006 and 2012

Resumen Objetivo: Medir la desigualdad en el uso de servicios de tamizaje en adultos de 20 a 59 años, a partir de las encuestas nacionales de salud y nutrición 2006 y 2012. Material y métodos: A partir de la selección de cinco indicadores de tamizaje en adultos (detección de diabetes, hipertensión y cánceres de mama, cérvicouterino y de próstata) se estimaron el índice de Kuznets, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente y el índice de concentración de salud, considerando como indicadores sociales la escolaridad, etnicidad, desempleo, nivel socioeconómico y tipo de protección en salud. Resultados: Las coberturas de las cinco pruebas se incrementaron, sin embargo, la desigualdad observada disminuyó únicamente en las intervenciones en mujeres; en el caso de la detección de cáncer de próstata se incrementó. Conclusión: Si bien es importante monitorear el desempeño de los servicios curativos, persiste el reto de asegurar el acceso efectivo y equitativo a servicios de diagnóstico temprano.

Abstract Objective: To measure health inequality in the use of screening services in adults from 20 to 59 years of age from the 2006 and 2012 national health and nutrition surveys. Materials and methods: Considering the selection of five indicators of screening in adults (detection of diabetes, hypertension, breast cancer, cervical cancer and prostate cancer), the Kuznets index, the slope inequality index and the health concentration index were estimated. Considering as social indicators schooling, ethnicity, unemployment, socioeconomic level and type of health protection. Results: The coverage of the five tests increased, but the inequality observed only decreased in the interventions in women; and in the case of the detection of prostate cancer it was increased. Conclusions: While it is important to monitor the performance of curative services, the challenge remains to ensure effective and equitable access to early diagnosis services.

[Social inequality in the use of screening tests in Mexico: an analysis of the national health surveys 2006 and 2012]. / Desigualdad social en México enel uso de servicios de tamizaje en adultos: un análisis de las encuestas nacionales de salud 2006 y 2012.

OBJECTIVE: To measure health inequality in the use of screen-ing services in adults from 20 to 59 years of age from the 2006 and 2012 national health and nutrition surveys. MATERIALS AND METHODS: dults (detection of diabetes, hypertension, breast cancer, cervical cancer and prostate cancer), the Kuznets index, the slope inequality index and the health concentration index were estimated. Considering as social indicators schooling, ethnicity, unemployment, socioeconomic level and type of health protection. RESULTS: The coverage of the five tests increased, but the inequality observed only decreased in the interventions in women; and in the case of the detection of prostate cancer it was increased. CONCLUSIONS: While it is important to monitor the performance of curative services, the challenge remains to ensure effective and equitable access to early diagnosis services.

OBJETIVO: Medir la desigualdad en el uso de servicios de tamizaje en adultos de 20 a 59 años, a partir de las encuestas nacionales de salud y nutrición 2006 y 2012. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: A partir de la selección de cinco indicadores de tamizaje en adultos (detección de diabetes, hipertensión y cánceres de mama, cérvicouterino y de próstata) se estimaron el índice de Kuznets, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente y el índice de concentración de salud, considerando como indicadores sociales la escolaridad, etnicidad, desempleo, nivel socioeconómico y tipo de protección en salud. RESULTADOS: Las coberturas de las cinco pruebas se incrementaron, sin embargo, la desigualdad observada disminuyó únicamente en las intervenciones en mujeres; en el caso de la detección de cáncer de próstata se incrementó. CONCLUSIONES: Si bien es importante monitorear el desempeño de los servicios curativos, persiste el reto de asegurar el acceso efectivo y equitativo a servicios de diagnóstico temprano.

Education and gastric cancer risk-An individual participant data meta-analysis in the StoP project consortium.

Low socioeconomic position (SEP) is a strong risk factor for incidence and premature mortality from several cancers. Our study aimed at quantifying the association between SEP and gastric cancer (GC) risk through an individual participant data meta-analysis within the "Stomach cancer Pooling (StoP) Project". Educational level and household income were used as proxies for the SEP. We estimated pooled odds ratios (ORs) and the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) across levels of education and household income by pooling study-specific ORs through random-effects meta-analytic models. The relative index of inequality (RII) was also computed. A total of 9,773 GC cases and 24,373 controls from 25 studies from Europe, Asia and America were included. The pooled OR for the highest compared to the lowest level of education was 0.60 (95% CI, 0.44-0.84), while the pooled RII was 0.45 (95% CI, 0.29-0.69). A strong inverse association was observed both for noncardia (OR 0.39, 95% CI, 0.22-0.70) and cardia GC (OR 0.47, 95% CI, 0.22-0.99). The relation was stronger among H. pylori negative subjects (RII 0.14, 95% CI, 0.04-0.48) as compared to H. pylori positive ones (RII 0.29, 95% CI, 0.10-0.84), in the absence of a significant interaction (p = 0.28). The highest household income category showed a pooled OR of 0.65 (95% CI, 0.48-0.89), while the corresponding RII was 0.40 (95% CI, 0.22-0.72). Our collaborative pooled-analysis showed a strong inverse relationship between SEP indicators and GC risk. Our data call for public health interventions to reduce GC risk among the more vulnerable groups of the population.

Economic impact of dengue in Mexico considering reported cases for 2012 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: Given that dengue disease is growing and may progress to dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), data on economic cost and disease burden are important. However, data for Mexico are limited. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Burden of dengue fever (DF) and DHF in Mexico was assessed using official databases for epidemiological information, disabilities weights from Shepard et al, the reported number of cases and deaths, and costs. Overall costs of dengue were summed from direct medical costs to the health system, cost of dengue to the patient (out-of-pocket expenses [medical and non-medical], indirect costs [loss of earnings, patient and/or caregiver]), and other government expenditures on prevention/surveillance. The first three components, calculated as costs per case by a micro-costing approach (PAATI; program, actions, activities, tasks, inputs), were scaled up to overall cost using epidemiology data from official databases. PAATI was used to calculate cost of vector control and prevention, education, and epidemiological surveillance, based on an expert consensus and normative construction of an ideal scenario. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for Mexico in 2016 were calculated to be 2283.46 (1.87 per 100,000 inhabitants). Overall economic impact of dengue in Mexico for 2012 was US$144 million, of which US$44 million corresponded to direct medical costs and US$5 million to the costs from the patient's perspective. The estimated cost of prevention/surveillance was calculated with information provided by federal government to be US$95 million. The overall economic impact of DF and DHF showed an increase in 2013 to US$161 million and a decrease to US$133, US$131 and US$130 million in 2014, 2015 and 2016, respectively. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The medical and economic impact of dengue were in agreement with other international studies, and highlight the need to include governmental expenditure for prevention/surveillance in overall cost analyses given the high economic impact of these, increasing the necessity to evaluate its effectiveness.

Stature in adults as an indicator of socioeconomic inequalities in Mexico

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To estimate the association between stature in Mexican adults and some sociodemographic factors. Methods. We studied a sample of 30 970 subjects, using anthropometric data from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2012). The first quartile was used as the cutoff to define short stature. We analyzed differences among stature strata for sociodemographic variables by using the Kruskal-Wallis test. We estimated odds ratios to measure the association between stature and sociodemographic variables, controlling for potential confounders. Results. Persons from the southern region of the country were some three times as likely to be of short stature than were subjects in the northern region. The stature difference between the Mexican states with the highest and the lowest average stature was larger than the average difference in stature between Mexico and the United States of America. Adults who had had less than six years of schooling presented the highest prevalence of short stature, regardless of sex, region of the country, place of residence (rural or urban), or the proportion of indigenous language speakers in a state. In addition, the stratum with the highest marginalization (percentage of the population lacking education and services, with a low income, and living in a small community) showed the highest prevalence of short stature. Conclusion. In Mexico, adults who are of short stature have unequal living conditions when compared to those of average or high stature, and this could drive increases in health inequity.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Establecer la asociación entre la estatura de los mexicanos adultos y algunos factores sociodemográficos. Métodos. Sobre la base de datos antropométricos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de 2012 (ENSANUT 2012), estudiamos una muestra de 30 970 sujetos. Para definir la estatura baja, el umbral se estableció en el primer cuartil. Analizamos las diferencias entre los distintos estratos de estatura en relación con variables sociodemográficas utilizando la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis. Calculamos las razones de posibilidades para medir la asociación entre la estatura y las variables sociodemográficas, con control de posibles factores de confusión. Resultados. Las personas de la zona meridional del país tenían alrededor de tres veces más probabilidades de ser de estatura baja que las personas de la zona septentrional. La diferencia entre los estados mexicanos con la estatura promedio más alta y la estatura promedio más baja fue mayor que la diferencia promedio respecto de la estatura entre México y los Estados Unidos de América. La prevalencia más alta de estatura baja se registró en los adultos con menos de seis años de escolaridad, independientemente del sexo, la zona del país, el lugar de residencia (rural o urbano) y la proporción de hablantes de lenguas indígenas en un estado. Además, la prevalencia más alta de estatura baja se observó en el estrato de población más marginada (porcentaje de habitantes sin escolaridad ni servicios, con ingresos bajos y que vivían una comunidad pequeña). Conclusiones. En México, las condiciones de vida de los adultos de estatura baja son más desfavorables que las de los adultos de estatura media o alta, y esto podría contribuir a aumentar la inequidad en materia de salud.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Estimar a associação entre a estatura em adultos mexicanos e fatores sociodemográficos. Métodos. Foi estudada uma amostra de 30.970 indivíduos com base em dados antropométricos obtidos da Pesquisa Nacional sobre Saúde e Nutrição de 2012 (ENSANUT 2012). O primeiro quartil foi usado como valor de corte para definir baixa estatura. Foram analisadas as diferenças entre os estratos de estatura para as variáveis sociodemográficas com o uso do teste de Kruskal- Wallis. Foram estimados os odds ratios para medir a associação entre a estatura e as variáveis sociodemográficas, controlando-se os potenciais fatores de confusão. Resultados. Os indivíduos da região sul do país apresentaram uma chance quase três vezes maior de ter baixa estatura em comparação aos indivíduos da região norte. A diferença de estatura entre os estados mexicanos com a estatura média maior e a estatura média menor foi maior que a diferença média em estatura entre o México e os Estados Unidos. Os adultos com menos de seis anos de escolaridade apresentaram a prevalência mais elevada de baixa estatura, independentemente do sexo, região do país, zona de residência (rural ou urbana) ou proporção de falantes de línguas indígenas em um estado. Além disso, o estrato com maior marginação (porcentagem de habitantes com carência de educação e serviços, de baixa renda e vivendo em uma pequena comunidade) apresentou a prevalência mais elevada de baixa estatura. Conclusão. No México, os adultos com baixa estatura têm condições de vida desiguais comparados aos adultos com estatura média ou alta, contribuindo para maior iniquidade em saúde.

Stature in adults as an indicator of socioeconomic inequalities in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the association between stature in Mexican adults and some sociodemographic factors. METHODS: We studied a sample of 30 970 subjects, using anthropometric data from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2012). The first quartile was used as the cutoff to define short stature. We analyzed differences among stature strata for sociodemographic variables by using the Kruskal-Wallis test. We estimated odds ratios to measure the association between stature and sociodemographic variables, controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS: Persons from the southern region of the country were some three times as likely to be of short stature than were subjects in the northern region. The stature difference between the Mexican states with the highest and the lowest average stature was larger than the average difference in stature between Mexico and the United States of America. Adults who had had less than six years of schooling presented the highest prevalence of short stature, regardless of sex, region of the country, place of residence (rural or urban), or the proportion of indigenous language speakers in a state. In addition, the stratum with the highest marginalization (percentage of the population lacking education and services, with a low income, and living in a small community) showed the highest prevalence of short stature. CONCLUSION: In Mexico, adults who are of short stature have unequal living conditions when compared to those of average or high stature, and this could drive increases in health inequity.

Stature in adults as an indicator of socioeconomic inequalities in Mexico / La estatura de los adultos como indicador de las desigualdades socioeconómicas en México / Estatura em adultos como indicador das desigualdades socioeconômicas no México

ABSTRACT Objective To estimate the association between stature in Mexican adults and some sociodemographic factors. Methods We studied a sample of 30 970 subjects, using anthropometric data from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2012). The first quartile was used as the cutoff to define short stature. We analyzed differences among stature strata for sociodemographic variables by using the Kruskal-Wallis test. We estimated odds ratios to measure the association between stature and sociodemographic variables, controlling for potential confounders. Results Persons from the southern region of the country were some three times as likely to be of short stature than were subjects in the northern region. The stature difference between the Mexican states with the highest and the lowest average stature was larger than the average difference in stature between Mexico and the United States of America. Adults who had had less than six years of schooling presented the highest prevalence of short stature, regardless of sex, region of the country, place of residence (rural or urban), or the proportion of indigenous language speakers in a state. In addition, the stratum with the highest marginalization (percentage of the population lacking education and services, with a low income, and living in a small community) showed the highest prevalence of short stature. Conclusion In Mexico, adults who are of short stature have unequal living conditions when compared to those of average or high stature, and this could drive increases in health inequity.

RESUMEN Objetivo Establecer la asociación entre la estatura de los mexicanos adultos y algunos factores sociodemográficos. Métodos Sobre la base de datos antropométricos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de 2012 (ENSANUT 2012), estudiamos una muestra de 30 970 sujetos. Para definir la estatura baja, el umbral se estableció en el primer cuartil. Analizamos las diferencias entre los distintos estratos de estatura en relación con variables sociodemográficas utilizando la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis. Calculamos las razones de posibilidades para medir la asociación entre la estatura y las variables sociodemográficas, con control de posibles factores de confusión. Resultados Las personas de la zona meridional del país tenían alrededor de tres veces más probabilidades de ser de estatura baja que las personas de la zona septentrional. La diferencia entre los estados mexicanos con la estatura promedio más alta y la estatura promedio más baja fue mayor que la diferencia promedio respecto de la estatura entre México y los Estados Unidos de América. La prevalencia más alta de estatura baja se registró en los adultos con menos de seis años de escolaridad, independientemente del sexo, la zona del país, el lugar de residencia (rural o urbano) y la proporción de hablantes de lenguas indígenas en un estado. Además, la prevalencia más alta de estatura baja se observó en el estrato de población más marginada (porcentaje de habitantes sin escolaridad ni servicios, con ingresos bajos y que vivían una comunidad pequeña). Conclusiones En México, las condiciones de vida de los adultos de estatura baja son más desfavorables que las de los adultos de estatura media o alta, y esto podría contribuir a aumentar la inequidad en materia de salud.

RESUMO Objetivo Estimar a associação entre a estatura em adultos mexicanos e fatores sociodemográficos. Métodos Foi estudada uma amostra de 30.970 indivíduos com base em dados antropométricos obtidos da Pesquisa Nacional sobre Saúde e Nutrição de 2012 (ENSANUT 2012). O primeiro quartil foi usado como valor de corte para definir baixa estatura. Foram analisadas as diferenças entre os estratos de estatura para as variáveis sociodemográficas com o uso do teste de Kruskal- Wallis. Foram estimados os odds ratios para medir a associação entre a estatura e as variáveis sociodemográficas, controlando-se os potenciais fatores de confusão. Resultados Os indivíduos da região sul do país apresentaram uma chance quase três vezes maior de ter baixa estatura em comparação aos indivíduos da região norte. A diferença de estatura entre os estados mexicanos com a estatura média maior e a estatura média menor foi maior que a diferença média em estatura entre o México e os Estados Unidos. Os adultos com menos de seis anos de escolaridade apresentaram a prevalência mais elevada de baixa estatura, independentemente do sexo, região do país, zona de residência (rural ou urbana) ou proporção de falantes de línguas indígenas em um estado. Além disso, o estrato com maior marginação (porcentagem de habitantes com carência de educação e serviços, de baixa renda e vivendo em uma pequena comunidade) apresentou a prevalência mais elevada de baixa estatura. Conclusão No México, os adultos com baixa estatura têm condições de vida desiguais comparados aos adultos com estatura média ou alta, contribuindo para maior iniquidade em saúde.

Correction: Calculation of the Average Cost per Case of Dengue Fever in Mexico Using a Micro-Costing Approach.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004897.].

Calculation of the Average Cost per Case of Dengue Fever in Mexico Using a Micro-Costing Approach.

INTRODUCTION: The increasing burden of dengue fever (DF) in the Americas, and the current epidemic in previously unaffected countries, generate major costs for national healthcare systems. There is a need to quantify the average cost per DF case. In Mexico, few data are available on costs, despite DF being endemic in some areas. Extrapolations from studies in other countries may prove unreliable and are complicated by the two main Mexican healthcare systems (the Secretariat of Health [SS] and the Mexican Social Security Institute [IMSS]). The present study aimed to generate specific average DF cost-per-case data for Mexico using a micro-costing approach. METHODS: Expected medical costs associated with an ideal management protocol for DF (denoted ´ideal costs´) were compared with the medical costs of current treatment practice (denoted ´real costs´) in 2012. Real cost data were derived from chart review of DF cases and interviews with patients and key personnel from 64 selected hospitals and ambulatory care units in 16 states for IMSS and SS. In both institutions, ideal and real costs were estimated using the program, actions, activities, tasks, inputs (PAATI) approach, a micro-costing technique developed by us. RESULTS: Clinical pathways were obtained for 1,168 patients following review of 1,293 charts. Ideal and real costs for SS patients were US$165.72 and US$32.60, respectively, in the outpatient setting, and US$587.77 and US$490.93, respectively, in the hospital setting. For IMSS patients, ideal and real costs were US$337.50 and US$92.03, respectively, in the outpatient setting, and US$2,042.54 and US$1,644.69 in the hospital setting. CONCLUSIONS: The markedly higher ideal versus real costs may indicate deficiencies in the actual care of patients with DF. It may be necessary to derive better estimates with micro-costing techniques and compare the ideal protocol with current practice when calculating these costs, as patients do not always receive optimal care.

[Inequality in primary care interventions in maternal and child health care in Mexico]. / Desigualdad en intervenciones de atención primaria para el cuidado de la salud maternoinfantil en México.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the principal indicators associated with maternal mortality and mortality in children under 1 year of age and evaluate coverage levels and variability among the federative entities of Mexico. METHODS: Eight interventions in maternal and child primary health care (variables) were studied: complete vaccination series, measles vaccine, and pentavalent vaccine in children under 1 year of age; early breast-feeding; prenatal care with at least one check-up by trained staff; prevalence of contraceptive use among married women of reproductive age; obstetric care in delivery by trained staff; and the administration of tetanus toxoid (TT) to pregnant women. The average and standard deviation of national coverage for each variable was calculated. Within each federative entity the proportion of municipalities with high, medium, and low marginalization was determined. States were ranked by the proportion of municipalities with high marginalization (highest to lowest) and divided into quintiles. Absolute inequality was measured using the observed difference and relative inequality, using the ratio of each variable studied. RESULTS: The average national coverage for the eight variables studied ranged from 86.5% to 97.5%, with administration of TT to pregnant women the lowest and administration of measles vaccine to children under 1 year of age the highest. Obstetric care in delivery, prevalence of contraceptive use, and prenatal checkup were the variables with less equitable coverage. In states with higher levels of marginalization, activities dependent on a structured health system-e.g., obstetric care in delivery-showed lower levels of coverage compared to preventive activities not requiring costly inputs or infrastructure-e.g., early breast-feeding. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions exhibiting greater inequity are associated with the lack of medical infrastructure and are more accentuated in federative entities with higher levels of marginalization. Greater public health expenditure is urgently needed to implement feasible, effective alternatives in terms of access and health care. Intersectoral policies and activities should be implemented to create synergies that will equitably improve the health of Mexican mothers and children.

Desigualdad en intervenciones de atención primaria para el cuidado de la salud maternoinfantil en México / Inequality in primary care interventions in maternal and child health care in Mexico

OBJETIVO: Analizar los principales indicadores asociados a la mortalidad materna y la mortalidad en niños menores de 1 año y evaluar su nivel de cobertura y de variabilidad entre las distintas entidades federativas de México. MÉTODOS: Se estudiaron ocho intervenciones dirigidas a la atención primaria de la salud materna e infantil (variables): esquema de vacunación completo, vacuna de sarampión y vacuna pentavalente en menores de 1 año; inicio temprano de la lactancia materna; atención prenatal con al menos una revisión por personal capacitado; prevalencia del uso de anticonceptivos en mujeres casadas en edad fértil; atención obstétrica del parto por personal capacitado y aplicación de toxoide tetánico (TT) en embarazadas. Se calculó el promedio y desviación estándar de la cobertura nacional para cada variable. Al interior de cada entidad federativa se determinó la proporción de municipios con alta, media y baja marginación. Se ordenaron las entidades federativas de mayor a menor, con base en la proporción de sus municipios con alta marginación y se dividieron en quintiles. Se calculó la desigualdad absoluta mediante la diferencia observada y la desigualdad relativa mediante la razón para cada una de las variables estudiadas. RESULTADOS: El promedio de cobertura nacional de las ocho variables estudiadas varió entre 86,5% y 97,5%, encontrándose que la cobertura más baja fue la aplicación de TT en mujeres embarazadas y la más alta, la vacuna contra el sarampión en menores de 1 año. La atención obstétrica, la prevalencia del uso de anticonceptivos y la revisión prenatal fueron las variables con coberturas menos equitativas. En los estados con mayores niveles de marginación, las acciones dependientes de un sistema de salud estructurado -p.ej. la atención obstétrica del parto- registraron una menor cobertura, a diferencia de las acciones preventivas que no requerían de mayores recursos de insumos o infraestructura -como el inicio temprano de lactancia materna. CONCLUSIONES: Las intervenciones con mayor iniquidad están asociadas a la falta de infraestructura médica, acentuándose en las entidades federativas con mayor marginación. Es perentorio incrementar el gasto público en salud de forma tal que sea posible implementar alternativas factibles y efectivas en materia de acceso y atención en salud. Se deben llevar adelante políticas y acciones intersectoriales que de modo sinérgico mejoren equitativamente la salud de las madres y los niños mexicanos.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the principal indicators associated with maternal mortality and mortality in children under 1 year of age and evaluate coverage levels and variability among the federative entities of Mexico. METHODS: Eight interventions in maternal and child primary health care (variables) were studied: complete vaccination series, measles vaccine, and pentavalent vaccine in children under 1 year of age; early breast-feeding; prenatal care with at least one check-up by trained staff; prevalence of contraceptive use among married women of reproductive age; obstetric care in delivery by trained staff; and the administration of tetanus toxoid (TT) to pregnant women. The average and standard deviation of national coverage for each variable was calculated. Within each federative entity the proportion of municipalities with high, medium, and low marginalization was determined. States were ranked by the proportion of municipalities with high marginalization (highest to lowest) and divided into quintiles. Absolute inequality was measured using the observed difference and relative inequality, using the ratio of each variable studied. RESULTS: The average national coverage for the eight variables studied ranged from 86.5% to 97.5%, with administration of TT to pregnant women the lowest and administration of measles vaccine to children under 1 year of age the highest. Obstetric care in delivery, prevalence of contraceptive use, and prenatal checkup were the variables with less equitable coverage. In states with higher levels of marginalization, activities dependent on a structured health system-e.g., obstetric care in delivery-showed lower levels of coverage compared to preventive activities not requiring costly inputs or infrastructure-e.g., early breast-feeding. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions exhibiting greater inequity are associated with the lack of medical infrastructure and are more accentuated in federative entities with higher levels of marginalization. Greater public health expenditure is urgently needed to implement feasible, effective alternatives in terms of access and health care. Intersectoral policies and activities should be implemented to create synergies that will equitably improve the health of Mexican mothers and children.

[An indirect estimation of current and future inequalities in the frequency of end stage renal disease in Mexico]. / Una estimación indirecta de las desigualdades actuales y futuras en la frecuencia de la enfermedad renal crónica terminal en México.

OBJECTIVE: To describe current and future health inequalities in End Stage Renal Disease in Mexico (ESRD) in Mexican states with varying degrees of marginality. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using results, obtained by us in 2009, of an indirect estimation of incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates, and of the average case duration, we grouped these data according to the social deprivation level of the Mexican states. We measured health inequalities using the Health Concentration Index. RESULTS: We found rising inequalities, between 2005 and 2025, in ESRD incidence, prevalence and mortality rates, as well as in the average duration of cases. CONCLUSION: We project an important increase in the prevalence of ESRD for 2025 which will be greater in the Mexican states with more marginality. This will increase health inequities already present and represent important challenges for health care financing, especially if no action is taken to control the causes and progression of ESRD.

[Direct cost analysis of hemodialysis units]. / Costos directos de la hemodiálisis en unidades públicas y privadas.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate and compare direct costs per hemodialysis session in public and private units in Mexico City. MATERIAL AND METHODS: PAATI, a microcosting strategy, was used to determine total costs of four public and two private health hospitals in Mexico City. A "shadow study" approach was employed to collect the needed data. Charts containing the "PAATI" information for each session were developed in Microsoft Excel. RESULTS: The average annual cost per patient undergoing hemodialysis in public units is $158 964.00 MX. The estimated cost for the care of all population estimated in need of renal replacement therapy (via hemodialysis) was estimated to be $10 921 788 072.00 MX. CONCLUSION: Human resources and infrastructure availability in México are very limited for nephrology, and in consequence for offering hemodialysis services.

Una estimación indirecta de las desigualdades actuales y futuras en la frecuencia de la enfermedad renal crónica terminal en México / An indirect estimation of current and future inequalities in the frequency of end stage renal disease in Mexico

OBJETIVO. Describir las desigualdades actuales y futuras de la enfermedad renal crónica terminal (ERCT) en México, que se presentan entre grupos de entidades federativas con diferentes grados de marginación. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Partiendo de una estimación indirecta de la incidencia, prevalencia, mortalidad y duración promedio que realizamos en 2009, presentamos datos agrupados de acuerdo con el grado de marginación estatal. Medimos la desigualdad con el Índice de Concentración de Salud. RESULTADOS. Encontramos desigualdades crecientes entre 2005 y 2025 en las tasas de incidencia, prevalencia y mortalidad, así como en la duración promedio de los casos. CONCLUSIÓN. Para 2025 esperamos importantes incrementos en la prevalencia de la ERCT que afectarán en mayor medida a los estados más marginados, lo que aumentará la inequidad presente en este problema de salud y representará importantes retos para el financiamiento de los servicios de salud, si no se incide sobre las causas y la progresión hacia la ERCT.

OBJECTIVE. To describe current and future health inequalities in End Stage Renal Disease in Mexico (ESRD) in Mexican states with varying degrees of marginality. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Using results, obtained by us in 2009, of an indirect estimation of incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates, and of the average case duration, we grouped these data according to the social deprivation level of the Mexican states. We measured health inequalities using the Health Concentration Index. RESULTS. We found rising inequalities, between 2005 and 2025, in ESRD incidence, prevalence and mortality rates, as well as in the average duration of cases. CONCLUSION. We project an important increase in the prevalence of ESRD for 2025 which will be greater in the Mexican states with more marginality. This will increase health inequities already present and represent important challenges for health care financing, especially if no action is taken to control the causes and progression of ESRD.

Costos directos de la hemodiálisis en unidades públicas y privadas / Direct cost analysis of hemodialysis units

OBJETIVO. Estimar y comparar el costo por sesión de hemodiálisis dentro del sector público y privado en la Ciudad de México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Se calcularon los costos de los insumos utilizados en las hemodiálisis de cuatro hospitales públicos y dos privados de la Ciudad de México, mediante la estrategia de micro-costeo denominada PAATI. Para la obtención de los datos se utilizó el método de sombra; además, se empleó Excel para elaborar cédulas en las que se determina el PAATI para cada sesión. RESULTADOS. El costo anual promedio directo en el sector público por el tratamiento de un individuo en hemodiálisis es de $158 964.00 M. N., y el costo de atender a la población que podría demandar terapia de reemplazo renal se estima en $10 921 788 072.00 M. N. CONCLUSIÓN. La disponibilidad de recursos humanos e infraestructura en el país es muy limitada para el campo de la nefrología en general y, en particular, para ofrecer servicios de hemodiálisis, por lo que sería necesario inyectar más recursos para poder responder ante la demanda por insuficiencia renal terminal.

OBJECTIVE. To estimate and compare direct costs per hemodialysis session in public and private units in Mexico City. MATERIAL AND METHODS. PAATI, a microcosting strategy, was used to determine total costs of four public and two private health hospitals in Mexico City. A "shadow study" approach was employed to collect the needed data. Charts containing the "PAATI" information for each session were developed in Microsoft Excel. RESULTS. The average annual cost per patient undergoing hemodialysis in public units is $158 964.00 MX. The estimated cost for the care of all population estimated in need of renal replacement therapy (via hemodialysis) was estimated to be $10 921 788 072.00 MX. CONCLUSION. Human resources and infrastructure availability in México are very limited for nephrology, and in consequence for offering hemodialysis services.

Likelihood ratios of clinical, laboratory and image data of pancreatic cancer: Bayesian approach.

PURPOSE: The diagnosis of pancreatic cancer (PC) is most frequently established in advanced stages. The aim of this study is to estimate the likelihood ratios (LRs) of diagnostic data with regards to PC that could be used to approach an earlier diagnosis. METHODS: A case-control study of 300 patients - 150 histological diagnosed cases of PC and 150 age-matched controls hospitalized for study of jaundice, abdominal pain, weight loss and/or chronic pancreatitis - was conducted. Bayesian probabilities in the form of LRs were estimated for PC predictions. RESULTS: Probability of PC was associated with jaundice [odds ratio (OR) 2.89; confidence interval (CI) 1.71-4.85], glycemic disturbance (OR 5.64; CI 2.36-13.46), tobacco index >20 (OR 2.11; CI 1.08-4.09) and tumour marker CA 19-9 (OR 9.33; CI 1.36-63.95). Computed tomography showed the highest test performance with regards to PC when comparing with other diagnostic tests. LRs for variables relevant to PC were estimated, among the most relevant: jaundice LR + 1.92, CA 19-9 LR + 5.36 and computed tomography LR + 4.15. The prediction model with an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography at a tertiary referral hospital determined a 67% probability of detecting PC. CONCLUSIONS: Through a Bayesian approach we can combine clinical, laboratory and imaging data to approximate to an earlier diagnosis of PC.

[Factors associated with quality of life parameters in older adults in Morelos]. / Factores asociados con las dimensiones de calidad de vida del adulto mayor en Morelos.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify a set of factors related to quality of life across the dimensions of physical, social and emotional functioning and general health perception in an elderly population from the state of Morelos, Mexico. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out from March to September of 1997 in urban and rural areas of the state of Morelos. The sample was built from randomly selected 2,571 households in the study areas. Data for the study were collected by means of structures personal interviews, using a questionnaire applied to 869 subjects who were 60 years or older at the time of the interview. Quality of life was analyzed in four dimensions: physical, social and emotional functioning and general health perception. Independent variables were: gender, age, perceived morbidity, activity level, health check-up and hospitalization during the last year, tobacco consumption and family income. Statistical analyses went from descriptive statistics to the fitting of multivariate unconditional logistic regression models. RESULTS: The factors associated with the dimensions of quality of life were: physical functioning; gender, illness in last year, age, tobacco consumption and activity level. In social functioning only health check up was significant, as protector factor of good social quality. In emotional functioning the associated factors were: gender, illness and medical check-up in last year. For the dimension health perception the variables were: gender, illness, hospitalization in last year and activity. All of them statistically significant p < 0.05. CONCLUSIONS: The factors associated with quality of life vary according to each dimension. However; gender, morbidity, health check up and activity were common for the dimensions studied; so that these aspects should be considered for planning interventions to improve the quality of life in elderly people.

[Evaluation of the availability, utilization, and costs of computerized tomography in the state of Morelos, Mexico]. / Evaluación de la disponibilidad, utilización y costos de la tomografía computarizada en el estado de Morelos, México.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the availability, utilization, and costs of computerized tomography (CT scan) in private and public hospitals in Morelos State, Mexico. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From January to April 1999, a cross-sectional study was carried out in two private and two public hospitals in Morelos, Mexico. Individual face-to-face interviews were conducted with directors, managers, radiologists, and heads of maintenance at each hospital. Statistical analysis was performed to describe the variables measuring availability, utilization, and costs of CT scans. A comprehensive assessment of CT scans was also performed. Emphasis was made on the variability of observed patterns among the participating hospitals. RESULTS: CT scan technology has been used by hospitals in Morelos State for over ten years; programs for preventive or corrective maintenance of these equipments are available, although at high costs. No strategies for technology assessment are available for acquisition of CT scanners nor during their period of utilization. This study did not attempt to evaluate the appropriateness of the clinical use of CT nor its untoward effects. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from the present study showed that: 1) a lack of mechanisms for technology assessment and management of CT scans prevented hospitals from managing CT scanning technologies efficiently; 2) technology assessment regulation is not available, even though it is necessary for the adequate selection of the best technologies, on the basis of their efficiency, effectiveness, safety, and availability.