Global variations in funding and use of hemodialysis accesses: an international report using the ISN Global Kidney Health Atlas.

BACKGROUND: There is a lack of contemporary data describing global variations in vascular access for hemodialysis (HD). We used the third iteration of the International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA) to highlight differences in funding and availability of hemodialysis accesses used for initiating HD across world regions. METHODS: Survey questions were directed at understanding the funding modules for obtaining vascular access and types of accesses used to initiate dialysis. An electronic survey was sent to national and regional key stakeholders affiliated with the ISN between June and September 2022. Countries that participated in the survey were categorized based on World Bank Income Classification (low-, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income) and by their regional affiliation with the ISN. RESULTS: Data on types of vascular access were available from 160 countries. Respondents from 35 countries (22% of surveyed countries) reported that > 50% of patients started HD with an arteriovenous fistula or graft (AVF or AVG). These rates were higher in Western Europe (n = 14; 64%), North & East Asia (n = 4; 67%), and among high-income countries (n = 24; 38%). The rates of > 50% of patients starting HD with a tunneled dialysis catheter were highest in North America & Caribbean region (n = 7; 58%) and lowest in South Asia and Newly Independent States and Russia (n = 0 in both regions). Respondents from 50% (n = 9) of low-income countries reported that > 75% of patients started HD using a temporary catheter, with the highest rates in Africa (n = 30; 75%) and Latin America (n = 14; 67%). Funding for the creation of vascular access was often through public funding and free at the point of delivery in high-income countries (n = 42; 67% for AVF/AVG, n = 44; 70% for central venous catheters). In low-income countries, private and out of pocket funding was reported as being more common (n = 8; 40% for AVF/AVG, n = 5; 25% for central venous catheters). CONCLUSIONS: High income countries exhibit variation in the use of AVF/AVG and tunneled catheters. In low-income countries, there is a higher use of temporary dialysis catheters and private funding models for access creation.

Capacity for the management of kidney failure in the International Society of Nephrology Oceania and South East Asia (OSEA) region: report from the 2023 ISN Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA).

The International Society of Nephrology (ISN) region of Oceania and South East Asia (OSEA) is a mix of high- and low-income countries, with diversity in population demographics and densities. Three iterations of the ISN-Global Kidney Health Atlas (GKHA) have been conducted, aiming to deliver in-depth assessments of global kidney care across the spectrum from early detection of CKD to treatment of kidney failure. This paper reports the findings of the latest ISN-GKHA in relation to kidney-care capacity in the OSEA region. Among the 30 countries and territories in OSEA, 19 (63%) participated in the ISN-GKHA, representing over 97% of the region's population. The overall prevalence of treated kidney failure in the OSEA region was 1203 per million population (pmp), 45% higher than the global median of 823 pmp. In contrast, kidney replacement therapy (KRT) in the OSEA region was less available than the global median (chronic hemodialysis, 89% OSEA region vs. 98% globally; peritoneal dialysis, 72% vs. 79%; kidney transplantation, 61% vs. 70%). Only 56% of countries could provide access to dialysis to at least half of people with incident kidney failure, lower than the global median of 74% of countries with available dialysis services. Inequalities in access to KRT were present across the OSEA region, with widespread availability and low out-of-pocket costs in high-income countries and limited availability, often coupled with large out-of-pocket costs, in middle- and low-income countries. Workforce limitations were observed across the OSEA region, especially in lower-middle-income countries. Extensive collaborative work within the OSEA region and globally will help close the noted gaps in kidney-care provision.

Capacity for the management of kidney failure in the International Society of Nephrology Latin America region: report from the 2023 ISN Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA).

Successful management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Latin America (LA) continues to represent a challenge due to high disease burden and geographic disparities and difficulties in terms of capacity, accessibility, equity, and quality of kidney failure care. Although LA has experienced significant social and economic progress over the past decades, there are still important inequities in health care access. Through this third iteration of the International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas, the indicators regarding kidney failure care in LA are updated. Survey responses were received from 22 of 31 (71%) countries in LA representing 96.5% of its total population. Median CKD prevalence was 10.2% (interquartile range: 8.4%-12.3%), median CKD disability-adjusted life year was 753.4 days (interquartile range: 581.3-1072.5 days), and median CKD mortality was 5.5% (interquartile range: 3.2%-6.3%). Regarding dialysis modality, hemodialysis continued to be the most used therapy, whereas peritoneal dialysis reached a plateau and kidney transplantation increased steadily over the past 10 years. In 20 (91%) countries, >50% of people with kidney failure could access dialysis, and in only 2 (9%) countries, people who had access to dialysis could initiate dialysis with peritoneal dialysis. A mix of public and private systems collectively funded most aspects of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis and transplantation) with many people incurring up to 50% of out-of-pocket costs. Few LA countries had CKD/kidney replacement therapy registries, and almost no acute kidney injury registries were reported. There was large variability in the nature and extent of kidney failure care in LA mainly related to countries' funding structures and limited surveillance and management initiatives.

An update on the global disparities in kidney disease burden and care across world countries and regions.

BACKGROUND: Since 2015, the International Society of Nephrology (ISN) Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA) has spearheaded multinational efforts to understand the status and capacity of countries to provide optimal kidney care, particularly in low-resource settings. In this iteration of the ISN-GKHA, we sought to extend previous findings by assessing availability, accessibility, quality, and affordability of medicines, kidney replacement therapy (KRT), and conservative kidney management (CKM). METHODS: A consistent approach was used to obtain country-level data on kidney care capacity during three phases of data collection in 2016, 2018, and 2022. The current report includes a detailed literature review of published reports, databases, and registries to obtain information on the burden of chronic kidney disease and estimate the incidence and prevalence of treated kidney failure. Findings were triangulated with data from a multinational survey of opinion leaders based on the WHO's building blocks for health systems (ie, health financing, service delivery, access to essential medicines and health technology, health information systems, workforce, and governance). Country-level data were stratified by the ISN geographical regions and World Bank income groups and reported as counts and percentages, with global, regional, and income level estimates presented as medians with interquartile ranges. FINDINGS: The literature review used information on prevalence of chronic kidney disease from 161 countries. The global median prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 9·5% (IQR 5·9-11·7) with the highest prevalence in Eastern and Central Europe (12·8%, 11·9-14·1). For the survey analysis, responses received covered 167 (87%) of 191 countries, representing 97·4% (7·700 billion of 7·903 billion) of the world population. Chronic haemodialysis was available in 162 (98%) of 165 countries, chronic peritoneal dialysis in 130 (79%), and kidney transplantation in 116 (70%). However, 121 (74%) of 164 countries were able to provide KRT to more than 50% of people with kidney failure. Children did not have access to haemodialysis in 12 (19%) of 62 countries, peritoneal dialysis in three (6%) countries, or kidney transplantation in three (6%) countries. CKM (non-dialysis management of people with kidney failure chosen through shared decision making) was available in 87 (53%) of 165 countries. The annual median costs of KRT were: US$19 380 per person for haemodialysis, $18 959 for peritoneal dialysis, and $26 903 for the first year of kidney transplantation. Overall, 74 (45%) of 166 countries allocated public funding to provide free haemodialysis at the point of delivery; use of this funding scheme increased with country income level. The median global prevalence of nephrologists was 11·8 per million population (IQR 1·8-24·8) with an 80-fold difference between low-income and high-income countries. Differing degrees of health workforce shortages were reported across regions and country income levels. A quarter of countries had a national chronic kidney disease-specific strategy (41 [25%] of 162) and chronic kidney disease was recognised as a health priority in 78 (48%) of 162 countries. INTERPRETATION: This study provides new information about the global burden of kidney disease and its treatment. Countries in low-resource settings have substantially diminished capacity for kidney care delivery. These findings have major policy implications for achieving equitable access to kidney care. FUNDING: International Society of Nephrology.

Plasma exchange and glucocorticoids to delay death or end-stage renal disease in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis: PEXIVAS non-inferiority factorial RCT.

BACKGROUND: Anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis is a multisystem, autoimmune disease that causes organ failure and death. Physical removal of pathogenic autoantibodies by plasma exchange is recommended for severe presentations, along with high-dose glucocorticoids, but glucocorticoid toxicity contributes to morbidity and mortality. The lack of a robust evidence base to guide the use of plasma exchange and glucocorticoid dosing contributes to variation in practice and suboptimal outcomes. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine the clinical efficacy of plasma exchange in addition to immunosuppressive therapy and glucocorticoids with respect to death and end-stage renal disease in patients with severe anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis. We also aimed to determine whether or not a reduced-dose glucocorticoid regimen was non-inferior to a standard-dose regimen with respect to death and end-stage renal disease. DESIGN: This was an international, multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Patients were randomised in a two-by-two factorial design to receive either adjunctive plasma exchange or no plasma exchange, and either a reduced or a standard glucocorticoid dosing regimen. All patients received immunosuppressive induction therapy with cyclophosphamide or rituximab. SETTING: Ninety-five hospitals in Europe, North America, Australia/New Zealand and Japan participated. PARTICIPANTS: Participants were aged ≥ 16 years with a diagnosis of granulomatosis with polyangiitis or microscopic polyangiitis, and either proteinase 3 anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody or myeloperoxidase anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody positivity, and a glomerular filtration rate of < 50 ml/minute/1.73 m2 or diffuse alveolar haemorrhage attributable to active anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis. INTERVENTIONS: Participants received seven sessions of plasma exchange within 14 days or no plasma exchange. Oral glucocorticoids commenced with prednisolone 1 mg/kg/day and were reduced over different lengths of time to 5 mg/kg/day, such that cumulative oral glucocorticoid exposure in the first 6 months was 50% lower in patients allocated to the reduced-dose regimen than in those allocated to the standard-dose regimen. All patients received the same glucocorticoid dosing from 6 to 12 months. Subsequent dosing was at the discretion of the treating physician. PRIMARY OUTCOME: The primary outcome was a composite of all-cause mortality and end-stage renal disease at a common close-out when the last patient had completed 10 months in the trial. RESULTS: The study recruited 704 patients from June 2010 to September 2016. Ninety-nine patients died and 138 developed end-stage renal disease, with the primary end point occurring in 209 out of 704 (29.7%) patients: 100 out of 352 (28%) in the plasma exchange group and 109 out of 352 (31%) in the no plasma exchange group (adjusted hazard ratio 0.86, 95% confidence interval 0.65 to 1.13; p = 0.3). In the per-protocol analysis for the non-inferiority glucocorticoid comparison, the primary end point occurred in 92 out of 330 (28%) patients in the reduced-dose group and 83 out of 325 (26%) patients in the standard-dose group (partial-adjusted risk difference 0.023, 95% confidence interval 0.034 to 0.08; p = 0.5), thus meeting our non-inferiority hypothesis. Serious infections in the first year occurred in 96 out of 353 (27%) patients in the reduced-dose group and in 116 out of 351 (33%) patients in the standard-dose group. The rate of serious infections at 1 year was lower in the reduced-dose group than in the standard-dose group (incidence rate ratio 0.69, 95% confidence interval 0.52 to 0.93; p = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS: Plasma exchange did not prolong the time to death and/or end-stage renal disease in patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis with severe renal or pulmonary involvement. A reduced-dose glucocorticoid regimen was non-inferior to a standard-dose regimen and was associated with fewer serious infections. FUTURE WORK: A meta-analysis examining the effects of plasma exchange on kidney outcomes in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis is planned. A health-economic analysis of data collected in this study to examine the impact of both plasma exchange and reduced glucocorticoid dosing is planned to address the utility of plasma exchange for reducing early end-stage renal disease rates. Blood and tissue samples collected in the study will be examined to identify predictors of response to plasma exchange in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm in antibody-associated vasculitis. The benefits associated with reduced glucocorticoid dosing will inform future studies of newer therapies to permit further reduction in glucocorticoid exposure. Data from this study will contribute to updated management recommendations for anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis. LIMITATIONS: This study had an open-label design which may have permitted observer bias; however, the nature of the end points, end-stage renal disease and death, would have minimised this risk. Despite being, to our knowledge, the largest ever trial in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis, there was an insufficient sample size to assess clinically useful benefits on the separate components of the primary end-point: end-stage renal disease and death. Use of a fixed-dose plasma exchange regimen determined by consensus rather than data-driven dose ranging meant that some patients may have been underdosed, thus reducing the therapeutic impact. In particular, no biomarkers have been identified to help determine dosing in a particular patient, although this is one of the goals of the biomarker plan of this study. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered as ISRCTN07757494, EudraCT 2009-013220-24 and Clinicaltrials.gov NCT00987389. FUNDING: This project was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 26, No. 38. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody vasculitis is a rare and severe disease in which the patient makes antibodies that damage their blood vessels. It can cause lung damage, kidney failure and early death. Treatment aims to suppress the harmful effects of the antibodies and associated inflammation. In particular: Plasma exchange aims to remove the antibodies from the bloodstream.Steroids aim to reduce the harmful activity of the antibodies. Unfortunately, plasma exchange is expensive and time-consuming, and we do not know if it really works long term to reduce kidney damage or the risk of death. We know steroids work, but they have many severe side effects that are related to higher doses. Again, we do not know if lower doses are equally effective. We conducted a randomised trial, PEXIVAS (Plasma Exchange In VASculitis), to measure the clinical effectiveness of plasma exchange and of reduced steroid doses. Anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody vasculitis patients with severe kidney or lung disease were allocated randomly to either plasma exchange or no plasma exchange. The same patients were then randomly allocated to a 'reduced' or 'standard' steroid dose. All patients received an immunosuppressive drug: cyclophosphamide or rituximab. The primary end point for both trials was the occurrence of either kidney failure or death. A total of 704 patients were recruited between 2010 and 2016, and they were followed up until the end of the trial in July 2017. Ninety-nine patients died and 138 developed kidney failure. Plasma exchange did not reduce the chances of death or kidney failure. There was also no difference between the two steroid dose groups in the number of deaths or patients developing kidney failure. However, there were fewer serious infections in the reduced steroid dose group. These results do not support the routine use of plasma exchange for all patients with severe vasculitis. They do show that the reduced-dose steroid regimen is just as effective as, and safer than, a 'standard'-dose steroid regimen. These results have the potential to save money and make the treatment of vasculitis patients safer in the future.

Assessment of an Interactive Digital Health-Based Self-management Program to Reduce Hospitalizations Among Patients With Multiple Chronic Diseases: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Digital health programs may have the potential to prevent hospitalizations among patients with chronic diseases by supporting patient self-management, symptom monitoring, and coordinated care. Objective: To compare the effect of an internet-based self-management and symptom monitoring program targeted to patients with 2 or more chronic diseases (internet chronic disease management [CDM]) with usual care on hospitalizations over a 2-year period. Design, Setting, and Participants: This single-blinded randomized clinical trial included patients with multiple chronic diseases from 71 primary care clinics in small urban and rural areas throughout British Columbia, Canada. Recruitment occurred between October 1, 2011, and March 23, 2015. A volunteer sample of 456 patients was screened for eligibility. Inclusion criteria included daily internet access, age older than 19 years, fluency in English, and the presence of 2 or more of the following 5 conditions: diabetes, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, chronic kidney disease, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A total of 230 patients consented to participate and were randomized to receive either the internet CDM intervention (n = 117) or usual care (n = 113). One participant in the internet CDM group withdrew from the study after randomization, resulting in 229 participants for whom data on the primary outcome were available. Interventions: Internet-based self-management program using telephone nursing supports and integration within primary care compared with usual care over a 2-year period. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was all-cause hospitalizations at 2 years. Secondary outcomes included hospital length of stay, quality of life, self-management, and social support. Additional outcomes included the number of participants with at least 1 hospitalization, the number of participants who experienced a composite outcome of all-cause hospitalization or death, the time to first hospitalization, and the number of in-hospital days. Results: Among 229 participants included in the analysis, the mean (SD) age was 70.5 (9.1) years, and 141 participants (61.6%) were male; data on race and ethnicity were not collected because there was no planned analysis of these variables. The internet CDM group had 25 fewer hospitalizations compared with the usual care group (56 hospitalizations vs 81 hospitalizations, respectively [30.9% reduction]; relative risk [RR], 0.68; 95% CI, 0.43-1.10; P = .12). The intervention group also had 229 fewer in-hospital days compared with the usual care group (282 days vs 511 days, respectively; RR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.24-1.10; P = .09). Components of self-management and social support improved in the intervention group. Fewer participants in the internet CDM vs usual care group had at least 1 hospitalization (32 of 116 individuals [27.6%] vs 46 of 113 individuals [40.7%]; odds ratio [OR], 0.55; 95% CI, 0.31-0.96; P = .03) or experienced the composite outcome of all-cause hospitalization or death (37 of 116 individuals [31.9%] vs 51 of 113 individuals [45.1%]; OR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.33-0.98; P = .04). Participants in the internet CDM group had a lower risk of time to first hospitalization (hazard ratio, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.39-0.97; P = .04) than those in the usual care group. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, an internet-based self-management program did not result in a significant reduction in hospitalization. However, fewer participants in the intervention group were admitted to the hospital or experienced the composite outcome of all-cause hospitalization or death. These findings suggest the internet CDM program has the potential to augment primary care among patients with multiple chronic diseases. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01342263.

Current status of health systems financing and oversight for end-stage kidney disease care: a cross-sectional global survey.

OBJECTIVES: The Global Kidney Health Atlas (GKHA) is a multinational, cross-sectional survey designed to assess the current capacity for kidney care across all world regions. The 2017 GKHA involved 125 countries and identified significant gaps in oversight, funding and infrastructure to support care for patients with kidney disease, especially in lower-middle-income countries. Here, we report results from the survey for the second iteration of the GKHA conducted in 2018, which included specific questions about health financing and oversight of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) care worldwide. SETTING: A cross-sectional global survey. PARTICIPANTS: Key stakeholders from 182 countries were invited to participate. Of those, stakeholders from 160 countries participated and were included. PRIMARY OUTCOMES: Primary outcomes included cost of kidney replacement therapy (KRT), funding for dialysis and transplantation, funding for conservative kidney management, extent of universal health coverage, out-of-pocket costs for KRT, within-country variability in ESKD care delivery and oversight systems for ESKD care. Outcomes were determined from a combination of desk research and input from key stakeholders in participating countries. RESULTS: 160 countries (covering 98% of the world's population) responded to the survey. Economic factors were identified as the top barrier to optimal ESKD care in 99 countries (64%). Full public funding for KRT was more common than for conservative kidney management (43% vs 28%). Among countries that provided at least some public coverage for KRT, 75% covered all citizens. Within-country variation in ESKD care delivery was reported in 40% of countries. Oversight of ESKD care was present in all high-income countries but was absent in 13% of low-income, 3% of lower-middle-income, and 10% of upper-middle-income countries. CONCLUSION: Significant gaps and variability exist in the public funding and oversight of ESKD care in many countries, particularly for those in low-income and lower-middle-income countries.

International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas: structures, organization, and services for the management of kidney failure in Eastern and Central Europe.

Provision of adequate kidney care for patients with chronic kidney disease or kidney failure (KF) is costly and requires extensive resources. There is an inequality in the global distribution of wealth and resources needed to provide this care. In this second iteration of the International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas, we present data for countries in Eastern and Central Europe. In the region, the median prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 13.15% and treated KF was 764 per million population, respectively, slightly higher than the global median of 759 per million population. In most countries in the region, over 90% of dialysis patients were on hemodialysis and patients with a functioning graft represented less than one-third of total patients with treated KF. The median annual costs for maintenance hemodialysis were close to the global median, and public funding provided nearly universal coverage of the costs of kidney replacement therapy. Nephrologists were primarily responsible for KF care. All countries had the capacity to provide long-term hemodialysis, and 95% had the capacity to provide peritoneal dialysis. Home hemodialysis was generally not available. Kidney transplantation and conservative care were available across most of the region. Almost all countries had official dialysis and transplantation registries. Eastern and Central Europe is a region with a high burden of chronic kidney disease and variable capacity to deal with it. Insufficient funding and workforce shortages coupled with increasing comorbidities among aging patients and underutilization of cost-effective dialysis therapies such as peritoneal dialysis and kidney transplantation may compromise the quality of care for patients with KF. Some workforce shortages could be addressed by improving the organization of nephrological care in some countries of the region.

International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas: structures, organization, and services for the management of kidney failure in Oceania and South East Asia.

Oceania and South East Asia (OSEA) is a socioeconomically, culturally, and ethnically diverse region facing a rising epidemic of noncommunicable diseases, including chronic kidney disease (CKD). The second iteration of the International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas aimed to provide a comprehensive evaluation of kidney care in OSEA. Of the 30 countries/territories in OSEA, 15 participated in the survey, representing 98.5% of the region's population. The median prevalence of treated kidney failure in OSEA was 1352 per million population (interquartile range, 966-1673 per million population), higher than the global median of 787 per million population. Although the general availability, access, and quality of kidney replacement therapy (i.e., dialysis and transplantation) was high in OSEA, inequalities in accessibility and affordability of kidney replacement therapy across the region resulted in variability between countries. According to the survey results, in a third of the participating countries (mostly lower-income countries), less than half the patients with kidney failure were able to access dialysis, whereas it was readily available to all with minimal out-of-pocket costs in high-income countries; similar variability in access to transplantation was also recorded. Limitations in workforce and resources vary across the region and were disproportionately worse in lower-income countries. There was little advocacy for kidney disease, moderate use of registries, restricted CKD detection programs, and limited availability of routine CKD testing in some high-risk groups across the region. International collaborations, as seen in OSEA, are important initiatives to help close the gaps in CKD care provision across the region and should continue receiving support from the global nephrology community.

Balancing the Needs of Acute and Maintenance Dialysis Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Proposed Ethical Framework for Dialysis Allocation.

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to strain health care systems and drive shortages in medical supplies and equipment around the world. Resource allocation in times of scarcity requires transparent, ethical frameworks to optimize decision making and reduce health care worker and patient distress. The complexity of allocating dialysis resources for both patients receiving acute and maintenance dialysis has not previously been addressed. Using a rapid, collaborative, and iterative process, BC Renal, a provincial network in Canada, engaged patients, doctors, ethicists, administrators, and nurses to develop a framework for addressing system capacity, communication challenges, and allocation decisions. The guiding ethical principles that underpin this framework are (1) maximizing benefits, (2) treating people fairly, (3) prioritizing the worst-off individuals, and (4) procedural justice. Algorithms to support resource allocation and triage of patients were tested using simulations, and the final framework was reviewed and endorsed by members of the provincial nephrology community. The unique aspects of this allocation framework are the consideration of two diverse patient groups who require dialysis (acute and maintenance), and the application of two allocation criteria (urgency and prognosis) to each group in a sequential matrix. We acknowledge the context of the Canadian health care system, and a universal payer in which this framework was developed. The intention is to promote fair decision making and to maintain an equitable reallocation of limited resources for a complex problem during a pandemic.

Hemodialysis Use and Practice Patterns: An International Survey Study.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Hemodialysis (HD) is the most common form of kidney replacement therapy. This study aimed to examine the use, availability, accessibility, affordability, and quality of HD care worldwide. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Stakeholders (clinicians, policy makers, and consumer representatives) in 182 countries were convened by the International Society of Nephrology from July to September 2018. OUTCOMES: Use, availability, accessibility, affordability, and quality of HD care. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Overall, representatives from 160 (88%) countries participated. Median country-specific use of maintenance HD was 298.4 (IQR, 80.5-599.4) per million population (pmp). Global median HD use among incident patients with kidney failure was 98.0 (IQR, 81.5-140.8) pmp and median number of HD centers was 4.5 (IQR, 1.2-9.9) pmp. Adequate HD services (3-4 hours 3 times weekly) were generally available in 27% of low-income countries. Home HD was generally available in 36% of high-income countries. 32% of countries performed monitoring of patient-reported outcomes; 61%, monitoring of small-solute clearance; 60%, monitoring of bone mineral markers; 51%, monitoring of technique survival; and 60%, monitoring of patient survival. At initiation of maintenance dialysis, only 5% of countries used an arteriovenous access in almost all patients. Vascular access education was suboptimal, funding for vascular access procedures was not uniform, and copayments were greater in countries with lower levels of income. Patients in 23% of the low-income countries had to pay >75% of HD costs compared with patients in only 4% of high-income countries. LIMITATIONS: A cross-sectional survey with possibility of response bias, social desirability bias, and limited data collection preventing in-depth analysis. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, findings reveal substantial variations in global HD use, availability, accessibility, quality, and affordability worldwide, with the lowest use evident in low- and lower-middle-income countries.

Peritoneal Dialysis Use and Practice Patterns: An International Survey Study.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Approximately 11% of people with kidney failure worldwide are treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD). This study examined PD use and practice patterns across the globe. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Stakeholders including clinicians, policy makers, and patient representatives in 182 countries convened by the International Society of Nephrology between July and September 2018. OUTCOMES: PD use, availability, accessibility, affordability, delivery, and reporting of quality outcome measures. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Responses were received from 88% (n=160) of countries and there were 313 participants (257 nephrologists [82%], 22 non-nephrologist physicians [7%], 6 other health professionals [2%], 17 administrators/policy makers/civil servants [5%], and 11 others [4%]). 85% (n=156) of countries responded to questions about PD. Median PD use was 38.1 per million population. PD was not available in 30 of the 156 (19%) countries responding to PD-related questions, particularly in countries in Africa (20/41) and low-income countries (15/22). In 69% of countries, PD was the initial dialysis modality for≤10% of patients with newly diagnosed kidney failure. Patients receiving PD were expected to pay 1% to 25% of treatment costs, and higher (>75%) copayments (out-of-pocket expenses incurred by patients) were more common in South Asia and low-income countries. Average exchange volumes were adequate (defined as 3-4 exchanges per day or the equivalent for automated PD) in 72% of countries. PD quality outcome monitoring and reporting were variable. Most countries did not measure patient-reported PD outcomes. LIMITATIONS: Low responses from policy makers; limited ability to provide more in-depth explanations underpinning outcomes from each country due to lack of granular data; lack of objective data. CONCLUSIONS: Large inter- and intraregional disparities exist in PD availability, accessibility, affordability, delivery, and reporting of quality outcome measures around the world, with the greatest gaps observed in Africa and South Asia.

Availability and Affordability of Kidney Health Laboratory Tests around the Globe.

BACKGROUND: Kidney disease is a major global public health problem, and laboratory testing of kidney health measures is essential for diagnosis and monitoring. The availability and affordability of kidney health laboratory tests across countries has not been systematically described. METHODS: The International Society of Nephrology (ISN), in partnership with leaders of a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference, surveyed a representative subset of ISN-Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA) respondents from April to June 2020. We assessed the association between country gross national income (GNI) per capita and laboratory testing availability and affordability. RESULTS: Of 33 regional expert nephrologists invited, 24 (73%) responded, representing all 10 ISN regions around the world. Availability of kidney health laboratory tests was as follows: serum Cr (100%), serum cystatin C (67%), urine albumin (96%), urine Cr (100%), and dipstick urinalysis (100%). Median (IQR) reimbursement values in international dollars were as follows: serum Cr Int$ 6.61 (3.42-8.84), serum cystatin C Int$ 31.51 (17.36-46.25), urine albumin Int$ 10.22 (5.90-15.42), urine Cr Int$ 7.50 (1.66-8.84), and dipstick urinalysis Int$ 6.26 (2.56-8.40). Reimbursement values did not differ significantly by World Bank income group or by GNI per capita. CONCLUSION: There was widespread availability of kidney health laboratory tests and substantial variation in reimbursement values. To achieve meaningful progress across nations in mitigating the growth of kidney disease, access to affordable diagnostic technology is essential. Our results are highly relevant to policymakers and researchers as countries increasingly consider national strategies for kidney disease detection and management.

Availability, Accessibility, and Quality of Conservative Kidney Management Worldwide.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: People with kidney failure typically receive KRT in the form of dialysis or transplantation. However, studies have suggested that not all patients with kidney failure are best suited for KRT. Additionally, KRT is costly and not always accessible in resource-restricted settings. Conservative kidney management is an alternate kidney failure therapy that focuses on symptom management, psychologic health, spiritual care, and family and social support. Despite the importance of conservative kidney management in kidney failure care, several barriers exist that affect its uptake and quality. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: The Global Kidney Health Atlas is an ongoing initiative of the International Society of Nephrology that aims to monitor and evaluate the status of global kidney care worldwide. This study reports on findings from the 2018 Global Kidney Health Atlas survey, specifically addressing the availability, accessibility, and quality of conservative kidney management. RESULTS: Respondents from 160 countries completed the survey, and 154 answered questions pertaining to conservative kidney management. Of these, 124 (81%) stated that conservative kidney management was available. Accessibility was low worldwide, particularly in low-income countries. Less than half of countries utilized multidisciplinary teams (46%); utilized shared decision making (32%); or provided psychologic, cultural, or spiritual support (36%). One-quarter provided relevant health care providers with training on conservative kidney management delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, conservative kidney management is available in most countries; however, it is not optimally accessible or of the highest quality.

The Global Kidney Health Atlas: Burden and Opportunities to Improve Kidney Health Worldwide.

CKD is a growing public health problem. The Global Kidney Health Atlas (GKHA) is an important initiative of the International Society of Nephrology. The GKHA aims to improve the understanding of inter- and intranational variability across the globe, focusing on capacity for kidney care delivery. The GKHA survey was launched in 2017 and then again in 2019, using the same core data, supplemented by information about dialysis access and conservative care. Based on a WHO framework of the 6 building blocks essential for health care, the GKHA assesses capacity in 6 domains: information systems, services delivery, workforce, financing, access to essential medicines, and leadership/governance. In addition, the GKHA assesses the capacity for research in all regions of the world, across all domains (basic, translational, clinical, and health system research). The results of the GKHA have informed policy and been used to enhance advocacy strategies in different regions. In addition, through documentation of the disparities within and between countries and regions, initiatives have been launched to foster change. Since the first survey, there has been an increase in the number of countries which have registries to document the burden of CKD or dialysis. For many, information about the burden of disease is the first step toward addressing care delivery issues, including prevention, delay of progression, and access to services. Worldwide collaboration in the documentation of kidney health and disease is an important step toward the goal of ensuring equitable access to kidney health worldwide.

Rationale and population-based prospective cohort protocol for the disadvantaged populations at risk of decline in eGFR (CO-DEGREE).

INTRODUCTION: A recently recognised form of chronic kidney disease (CKD) of unknown origin (CKDu) is afflicting communities, mostly in rural areas in several regions of the world. Prevalence studies are being conducted in a number of countries, using a standardised protocol, to estimate the distribution of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), and thus identify communities with a high prevalence of reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In this paper, we propose a standardised minimum protocol for cohort studies in high-risk communities aimed at investigating the incidence of, and risk factors for, early kidney dysfunction. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This generic cohort protocol provides the information to establish a prospective population-based cohort study in low-income settings with a high prevalence of CKDu. This involves a baseline survey that included key elements from the DEGREE survey (eg, using the previously published DEGREE methodology) of a population-representative sample, and subsequent follow-up visits in young adults (without a pre-existing diagnosis of CKD (eGFR<60 mL/min/1.73m2), proteinuria or risk factors for CKD at baseline) over several years. Each visit involves a core questionnaire, and collection and storage of biological samples. Local capacity to measure serum creatinine will be required so that immediate feedback on kidney function can be provided to participants. After completion of follow-up, repeat measures of creatinine should be conducted in a central laboratory, using reference standards traceable to isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) quality control material to quantify the main outcome of eGFR decline over time, alongside a description of the early evolution of disease and risk factors for eGFR decline. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval will be obtained by local researchers, and participants will provide informed consent before the study commences. Participants will typically receive feedback and advice on their laboratory results, and referral to a local health system where appropriate.

CKD Hotspots: Challenges and Areas of Opportunity.

The global burden of illness from chronic kidney disease (CKD) continues to increase not only because of a higher prevalence of traditional causes of CKD, such as diabetes and hypertension, but also because of a higher than average incidence of CKD resulting from infections and unknown causes in certain geographic locations around the world (the so-called, CKD hotspots). This article summarizes the main gaps and areas of opportunity related to CKD hotspots that were discussed in a recent CKD Global Summit sponsored by the International Society of Nephrology. Gaps include the lack of a universally accepted definition of CKD hotspots and CKD of unknown etiology (CKDu), which clearly compromises our understanding of the burden, severity, and natural history of these conditions. In addition, there is scarce knowledge of the causes of CKDu, limitation regarding CKD prevention and treatment, and insufficient funding and advocacy for research and clinical care. Areas of opportunity include a better epidemiologic characterization of CKD hotspots and CKDu, improved knowledge of the causes of CKDu, prevention and treatment of CKD and end-stage kidney disease, increased advocacy and funding for research and clinical care, and improved education and awareness in CKD hotspots.

Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Migrants With CKD: A Cost-effectiveness Analysis.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: In countries with a low tuberculosis (TB) incidence, TB disproportionately affects populations born abroad. TB persists in these populations through reactivation of latent TB infection (LTBI) acquired before immigration. Those with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at increased risk for reactivation and may benefit from LTBI screening and treatment. STUDY DESIGN: Health administrative data from British Columbia, Canada, were used to inform a cost-effectiveness analysis evaluating LTBI screening in those diagnosed with stage 4 or 5 CKD not requiring dialysis (late-stage CKD) and those who began dialysis therapy. SETTING & POPULATION: Permanent residents establishing residency in British Columbia, Canada, between 1985 and 2012 who had late-stage CKD diagnosed or began dialysis therapy. INTERVENTIONS: Screening with the tuberculin skin test or interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) compared to no LTBI screening at the time of late-stage CKD diagnosis and time of dialysis therapy initiation. Treatment for those who tested positive was isoniazid for 9 months. OUTCOMES: Costs (2016 Can $), TB cases, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for QALYs gained was calculated. MODEL, PERSPECTIVE, & TIMEFRAME: Discrete event simulation model using a health care system perspective, 1.5% discount rate, and 5-year time horizon. RESULTS: Screening with IGRA was superior to the tuberculin skin test in all situations. Screening with IGRA was less expensive and resulted in better outcomes compared to no screening in those initiating dialysis therapy from countries with an elevated TB incidence. In individuals with late-stage CKD, screening with IGRA was only cost-effective in those 60 years or older (cost per QALY gained, <$48,000) from countries with an elevated TB incidence. LIMITATIONS: This study has limitations in generalizability to different epidemiologic settings and in modeling complicated clinical decisions. CONCLUSIONS: LTBI screening should be considered in non-Canadian-born residents initiating dialysis therapy and those with late stage CKD who are older.

What we do and do not know about women and kidney diseases; Questions unanswered and answers unquestioned: Reflection on World Kidney Day and International Woman's Day.

Chronic Kidney Disease affects approximately 10% of the world's adult population: it is within the top 20 causes of death worldwide, and its impact on patients and their families can be devastating. World Kidney Day and International Women's Day in 2018 coincide, thus offering an opportunity to reflect on the importance of women's health and specifically their kidney health, on the community, and the next generations, as well as to strive to be more curious about the unique aspects of kidney disease in women so that we may apply those learnings more broadly. Girls and women, who make up approximately 50% of the world's population, are important contributors to society and their families. Gender differences continue to exist around the world in access to education, medical care, and participation in clinical studies. Pregnancy is a unique state for women, offering an opportunity for diagnosis of kidney disease, but also a state where acute and chronic kidney diseases may manifest, and which may impact future generations with respect to kidney health. There are various autoimmune and other conditions that are more likely to impact women with profound consequences for child bearing, and on the fetus. Women have different complications on dialysis than men, and are more likely to be donors than recipients of kidney transplants. In this editorial, we focus on what we do and do not know about women, kidney health, and kidney disease, and what we might learn in the future to improve outcomes worldwide. Kidney Health and Women's Health: a case for optimizing outcomes for present and future generations.