Concentration and health risk assessment of 16 rare earth elements in six types of tea in China.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) have been implicated in potential health effects. However, the health risk of REE exposure among tea drinkers in China remains poorly understood. This study aimed to characterize the concentration of REEs in different tea categories and evaluate the associated health risks for tea consumers in China. By analyzing the content of 16 REEs in 4326 tea samples from China, the exposure level of REEs to the general population was estimated. The content of these 16 REEs was similar across six types of tea, with oolong tea exhibiting the highest levels. The concentration of light rare earth elements (LREEs) in six types of tea was higher than that of heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). The daily mean and 95th percentile (P95) exposure to REEs from tea for the general population in China were 0.0328 µg/kg BW and 0.1283 µg/kg BW, respectively, which are significantly lower than the temporary acceptable daily dose (tADI). Our findings suggest that REEs from tea do not pose a known health risk to Chinese consumers.

Advancing food safety risk assessment in China: development of new approach methodologies (NAMs).

Novel techniques and methodologies are being developed to advance food safety risk assessment into the next-generation. Considering the shortcomings of traditional animal testing, new approach methodologies (NAMs) will be the main tools for the next-generation risk assessment (NGRA), using non-animal methodologies such as in vitro and in silico approaches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Food Safety Authority have established work plans to encourage the development and application of NAMs in NGRA. Currently, NAMs are more commonly used in research than in regulatory risk assessment. China is also developing NAMs for NGRA but without a comprehensive review of the current work. This review summarizes major NAM-related research articles from China and highlights the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) as the primary institution leading the implementation of NAMs in NGRA in China. The projects of CFSA on NAMs such as the Food Toxicology Program and the strategies for implementing NAMs in NGRA are outlined. Key issues and recommendations, such as discipline development and team building, are also presented to promote NAMs development in China and worldwide.

Quantitative microbiological risk assessment of nontyphoidal Salmonella in ground pork in households in Chengdu, China.

Foodborne disease caused by nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) is one of the most important food safety issues worldwide. The objectives of this study were to carry out microbial monitoring on the prevalence of NTS in commercial ground pork, investigate consumption patterns, and conduct a quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) that considers cross-contamination to determine the risk caused by consuming ground pork and ready-to-eat food contaminated during food handling in the kitchen in Chengdu, China. The food pathway of ground pork was simplified and assumed to be several units according to the actual situation and our survey data, which were collected from our research or references and substituted into the QMRA model for simulation. The results showed that the prevalence of NTS in ground pork purchased in Chengdu was 69.64% (95% confidence interval [CI], 60.2-78.0), with a mean contamination level of -0.164 log CFU/g. After general cooking, NTS in ground pork could be eliminated (contamination level of zero). The estimated probability of causing salmonellosis per day was 9.43E-06 (95% CI: 8.82E-06-1.00E-05), while the estimated salmonellosis cases per million people per year were 3442 (95% CI: 3218-3666). According to the sensitivity analysis, the occurrence of cross-contamination was the most important factor affecting the probability of salmonellosis. To reduce the risk of salmonellosis caused by NTS through ground pork consumption, reasonable hygiene prevention and control measures should be adopted during food preparation to reduce cross-contamination. This study provides valuable information for household cooking and food safety management in China.

Dietary Exposure Assessment of Rare Earth Elements in the Chinese Population.

Rare earth elements (REEs) are widely found in foods. A high intake of REEs may have associations with adverse effects on human health. This study aimed to investigate the concentrations of REEs in foods in China and to assess the risk of dietary REEs exposure in the Chinese population. The mean concentrations of the total REEs in 27,457 food samples from 11 food categories ranged from 0.04 to 1.41 mg/kg. The daily mean dietary exposure of the total REEs was 1.62 µg/kg BW in the general Chinese population and ranged from 1.61 to 2.80 µg/kg BW in different sex-age groups. The high consumer exposure (95th percentile, P95) was 4.83 µg/kg BW, 9.38% of the temporary ADI (tADI) of REEs (51.5 µg/kg BW). None of the P95 exposure exceeded the tADI in all of the sub-groups. Lanthanum, cerium, and yttrium accounted for approximately 63% of the total exposure of the 16 REEs. The hazard index of 16 REEs was far below 1. Therefore, the health risk of dietary REEs exposure in the general Chinese population was low. No cumulative risk was found for the 16 REEs in China. The results indicate there was no need to stipulate the limits of REEs in foods.

Risk assessment of rare earth elements in fruits and vegetables from mining areas in China.

Assessment of contaminated food through the dietary intake is essential for human health. To investigate the health risk of rare earth element (REE) exposure to fruits and vegetables in mining areas in China, we collected 288 fruit samples and 942 vegetable samples from four representative mining points (Bayan Obo in Inner Mongolia, Weishan in Shandong, Maoming in Guangdong, Longnan in Jiangxi) and their control areas. The content of REEs was determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The total REEs in fruits from mining and control areas were 12.90 µg kg-1 and 11.89 µg kg-1, and in vegetables were 92.90 µg kg-1 and 62.38 µg kg-1, and the difference was statistically significant in vegetables (P = 0.048). The drupes had more REE concentration in fruits (68.41 µg kg-1, 16.90 µg kg-1 in mining and control areas, respectively) (P < 0.01), and the leafy vegetables had more REE concentration in vegetables (245.81 µg kg-1, 123.51 µg kg-1 in mining and control areas, respectively) (P < 0.01). With the enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREE), the REE distribution patterns coincided in mining and control areas and different types of fruits and vegetables. The health risk assessment indicated that the estimated daily intakes (0.02-0.06 µg kg-1 day-1, 0.53-1.22 µg kg-1 day-1 for fruits and vegetables, respectively) were lower than the allowable daily intake value (60.4 µg kg-1 day-1). In mining areas, REEs obtained from fruits and vegetables were insufficient to cause health damage to human beings. However, sustained exposure to low REEs, especially for children, still needs attention.

Occurrence of 3- and 2-monochloropropanediol esters in infant formulas in China and exposure assessment.

The presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and 2-MCPD esters in infant formulas have raised a number of food safety concerns. Here, a dietary exposure assessment was conducted for 3-and 2-MCPD esters in infant formulas available for consumption in Chinese infant and toddlers aged 0-3 years old. This work presents the occurrence data for 3-and 2-MCPD ester in 874 infant formulas purchased in China between 2015 and 2017. The concentrations of 3-MCPD esters ranged from ND to 1.469 mg/kg, with concentrations of 2-MCPD esters ranging from ND to 0.218 mg/kg. The LODs of 3-and 2-MCPD esters were 0.027-0.074 mg/kg. The mean exposures of infants and toddlers to 3-MCPD esters from formulas were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI, 2 µg/kg bw/day, established by EFSA), while high exposures (95th percentile) to 3-MCPD esters ranged from 0.907 to 2.520 µg/kg bw/day. On the whole, the health risk of Chinese infant and toddlers exposed to 3-MCPD esters was low, but the health risk of some infants aged 0-6 months with high formula consumption (95th percentile) raises some concern.

Development and application of a comparative risk assessment method for ranking chemical hazards in food.

The aim of this study was to develop a comparative risk assessment method to prioritise the public health risks posed by chemical hazards in food. Through a literature review, and in light of expert opinions, a bottom-up, semi-quantitative scoring method was applied to screen the ranking metrics and assign a score. In addition, a metrics system and a ranking model were constructed. The fuzzy comprehensive analysis model was used to assess typical chemical hazards in a specific food, as well as to rank risks in many foods. Data were collected from the National Food Surveillance System in China, the Food Consumption of Chinese Residents Database, government reports, public websites and databases of authoritative organisations. The comparative risk assessment method was applied to case studies on ranking chemical hazards in different kinds of food. According to application testing, the method truly reflects the overall risk and ranking of chemical hazards in food.

Dietary exposure of general Chinese population to fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD) from edible oils and oil-containing foods.

Edible oils and oil-containing foods have been regarded as the main source of 3-monochloropropane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD) esters. A total of 3,847 individual food samples were collected in China to carry out 3-MCPD fatty acid esters analysis. The samples comprising edible oils, fried foods and bakery foods from 31 Chinese provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions were obtained from the national food contaminant information system during 2015-2017. The dietary exposure and potential risks associated with the consumption of 3-MPCD esters from edible oils and oil-containing foods were estimated using a semi-probabilistic assessment model. Concentrations of 3-MCPD fatty acid esters in food samples were detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The mean levels of 3-MCPD fatty acid esters in edible oils, fried foods and bakery foods were 0.862, 0.249 and 0.145 mg/kg, respectively. The range of mean dietary intakes of 3-MCPD esters in different subpopulation groups (classified by gender and age) was from 0.586 to 1.539 µg/kg bw/day, which were all lower than 2 µg/kg bw/day - the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The range of dietary intake of 3-MCPD esters in high consumers (95th percentile) in each group was from 1.511 to 4.027 µg/kg bw/day, which accounted for 75.6% to 201.4% of the TDI. The 3-MCPD esters exposure level of 3.5% of the total Chinese population exceeded the TDI. The findings indicate that the potential health risks caused by dietary 3-MCPD esters from edible oils and oil-containing foods were of low concern for most of the Chinese population. However, the exposure risk of the consumers with excessive edible oil consumption calls for attention.

Estimating the national burden of mild intellectual disability in children exposed to dietary lead in China.

The effects of lead as a dietary pollutant remain a global public health concern that needs urgent resolution. Children are highly susceptible to the adverse outcomes of lead pollution, as even low levels of lead may cause irreversible damage to intellectual development. Since several sources of lead exposure are present in the environment, it is necessary to identify the attributable burden of lead-related diseases arising from different exposure sources. In the present study, we used epidemiological data from studies around the nation to estimate the burden of mild intellectual disability (MID) attributed to lead exposure sources by using disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). To this end, a dose-response approach was used and a model comprising three components was established: exposure, dose-response, and DALYs module. In Chinese children aged 0-6 years, blood lead levels (BLLs) of 5.34 ± 3.09 µg/dL resulted in a MID incidence rate of 12.84 cases per 1000 children, with an estimated burden of disease (BoD) of 42.23 DALYs per 1000 children. Owing to dietary lead exposure, 36.64 healthy life years per 1000 children were lost, which was notably higher than the outcomes associated with exposure from other sources. This was consistent with the result that dietary exposure was the main contributor to children's lead exposure, accounting for 86.76%. According to the regional distribution based on the existing literature, the areas in China with higher BLLs were Heilongjiang, Shanxi, and Jiangxi. Our findings provided the information for lead risk management decisions and policies making.

An updated weight of evidence approach for deriving a health-based guidance value for 4-nonylphenol.

4-Nonylphenol (NP) is a persistent estrogen-active compound. Human exposure to NP is primarily through water and food. Although risk assessments of NP have been conducted by the European Union and a few other countries, only the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, in 2000, proposed a tolerable daily intake of 0.005 mg kg-1 body weight (bw) day-1 . New data have been accumulated since then, prompting an update on the risk assessment of NP. A weight of evidence approach is recommended for use in scientific assessments by several agencies, e.g., European Food Safety Authority, etc. Based on the results of a weight of evidence approach, two methods were used to derive the health-based guidance value (HBGV) for NP in this study, namely a no observed adverse effects level/lowest observable adverse effect level method, and a benchmark dose method. Considering the considerable uncertainty of benchmark dose model fitting of the available data, a tolerable daily intake value of 0.025 mg kg-1 bw day-1 was derived as a provisional HBGV for NP based on the lowest observable adverse effect level value of 15 mg kg-1 bw day-1 of the renal toxicity in rats, together with the uncertainty factor of 600. However, the HBGV of NP still needs further investigation.

Estimated assessment of cumulative dietary exposure to organophosphorus residues from tea infusion in China.

BACKGROUND: China has the world's largest tea plantation area in the world. To sustain high yields of the tea, multiple pesticides are used on tea crops to control pests. Organophosphorus (OP) pesticides are among the most widely used types of agricultural pesticides in China. As tea is a significant potential source of exposure to pesticide residues, the public concern has increased in relation to pesticide residues found in tea in China. The aim of the study was to estimate cumulative dietary exposure to OP residues from tea infusion for Chinese tea consumers to determine whether exposure to OP residues from tea infusion is a cause of health concern for tea consumers in China. METHODS: OP residue data were obtained from the China National Monitoring Program on Food Safety (2013-2014), encompassing 1687 tea samples from 12 provinces. Tea consumption data were obtained from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey (2002), comprising 506 tea consumers aged 15-82 years. The transfer rates of residues from tea leaves into tea infusions were obtained from the literature. The relative potency factor (RPF) approach was used to estimate acute cumulative exposure to 20 OP residues from tea infusion using methamidophos as the index compound. Dietary exposure was calculated in a probabilistic way. RESULTS: For tea consumers, the mean and the 99.9th percentile (P99.9) of cumulative dietary exposure to OP residues from tea infusion equalled 0.08 and 1.08 µg/kg bw/d. When compared with the acute reference dose (ARfD), 10 µg/kg bw/d for methamidophos, this accounts for 0.8 and 10.8% of the ARfD. CONCLUSIONS: Even when considering OP residues from vegetables, fruits and other foods, there are no health concerns based on acute dietary exposure to OP residues from tea infusion. However, it is necessary to strengthen the management of the OP pesticides used on tea in China to reduce the risk of chronic dietary exposure to OPs from tea infusion.

Risk assessment of dietary exposure to aluminium in the Chinese population.

In order to address the issue of excessive intake of aluminium (Al) from Al-containing food additives in the Chinese diet, this study conducted a dietary exposure assessment of Al in the general population based on the national surveillance data of Al content in foods and national food consumption data. It was found that the mean dietary exposure of the whole Chinese population to Al from Al-containing food additives was 1.795 mg kg‒1 bw week‒1, not exceeding the PTWI, while high dietary exposures (e.g., 97.5th percentile) to Al were 7.660 and 2.103-2.903 mg kg‒1 bw week‒1 for children, respectively, both exceeding the PTWI. It was found that the dietary exposure to Al for 32.5% of the total Chinese population and 42.6% of children aged 4-6 years exceeded the PTWI. Wheat flour and wheat-based products are the main source of dietary A l exposure (85% of the total intake); and puffed foods are the major source of Al intake for children. These findings suggested that consumption of Al-containing food additives could be a health concern for consumers with high food consumption (97.5th percentile) and children under the age of 14 years.

Assessment of synergistic thyroid disrupting effects of a mixture of EDCs in ovariectomized rats using factorial analysis and dose addition.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been implicated in a broad spectrum of health problems related to reproduction, thyroid function, neurodevelopment, and metabolism. In many cases, EDCs in the environment are at extremely low concentrations which rarely induce health problems alone, however, a mixture of these EDCs may interact and induce potential additive and synergistic effects. Many mixture studies on EDCs were conducted in terms of high doses with the direct effect addition method, which didn't comply with the dose-response relationship of toxicants in the "S" or "U" shaped curves. In the present study, the thyroid disrupting effects of a mixture of three EDCs, propylthiouracil (PTU), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and ammonium perchlorate (AP), were measured in an ovariectomized rat model. Sixty female SD rats were ovariectomized bilaterally and randomly assigned to ovariectomization (OVX) control, PTU + PCBs, PTU + AP, PCBs + AP and PTU + PCBs + AP groups treated with doses at lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) or benchmark dose lower limits (BMDLs) obtained from our previous dose-response relationship studies. OVX control animals were treated with vehicle control while all other animals were treated with different combinations of EDCs by gavage for 8 days. The body weight change, serum total thyroxine (tT4), triiodothyroxine (tT3), the thyroid/body weight ratio, and thyroid histopathological endpoints were measured and analyzed using factorial analysis and dose addition. All EDC treated groups showed a marked change compared to vehicle control in serum tT4, the thyroid/body weight ratio, and the thyroid epithelium/colloid ratio. Both factorial analysis and dose addition analysis showed a synergistic effect on thyroid function by PTU, PCBs and AP together, but the modes of interaction varied when either two were mixed at LOAELs. To conclude, a mixture of PTU, PCBs, and AP mainly acted synergistically on thyroid function and induced a significant health effect.

[Dietary intake and risk assessment of diisononyl phthalate (DINP) in Chinese population].

OBJECTIVE: To study DINP concentration level in the main food, evaluate DINP dietary intake level in Chinese population and its potential health risks. METHODS: Based on the deterministic assessment model, using concentration level of 25 kinds of food in 2011 - 2013 and Chinese national nutrition and health survey data in 2002, to calculate dietary intake of DINP in Chinese population. RESULTS: The average DINP concentration level in 24 kinds of foods was 0. 24 mg/kg, and the maximum value was 9. 55 mg/kg. In whole population, average dietary intake of DINP was 4. 39 µg/kg bw per day, only 2. 93% of TDI. The dietary intake of DINP in children aged 2 to 6 years old was highest, with an average of 8. 91 µg/kg bw per day, 5. 94% of the TDI. The dietary intake of DINP in children aged 7 to 12 years old was lower than 2 to 6 years old children, with an average of 6.53 µg/kg bw per day, 4. 35% of TDI. The dietary intake of DINP in high consumer(P97. 5) in all population was 8. 35 µg/kg bw per day, 5. 57% of the TDI. The range of dietary intake of DINP in high consumer (P97. 5) in each group (grouping by gender and age) was from 13. 84 to 5.44 µg/kg bw per day, which were all lower than the TDI. CONCLUSION: The dietary intake of DINP in different populations is considerably below the TDI and any health risk that would be expected to occur at this intake level is negligible.

[Dietary intake and risk assessment of diethylhexyl phthalate in Chinese populations].

OBJECTIVE: To assess dietary exposure of diethylhexyl phthalate(DEHP) among Chinese population, including general population, children aged 2-6 years, adolescent aged 7-12, young people aged 13-17, adults aged 18-59 years old as well as older people aged 60 and above and its health risk. METHODS: A total of 6 650 food samples were collected during 2011 to 2013 from 140 local markets of 14 provinces in China, which covered major foods in China. Samples were detected by GC-MS and categorized into 22 food groups. Food consumption data were taken from China National Nutrition and Health Survey performed in 2002 including 68 959 subjects. Mean concentrations of DEHP in food were combined with individual food consumption data to estimate dietary exposure, and food contributors to dietary DEHP intake were also calculated. Then, the exposure was compared with the tolerable daily intake (TDI, 50 µg·kg(-1)-d(-1)) of DEHP. RESULTS: DEHP level in foods (n = 6 650) was in the range of not detected to 43.80 mg/kg. Mean dietary intakes of DEHP in general population was 2.07 (95% CI: 0.06-4.09) µg·kg(-1)·d(-1), accounting for 4.14 percent of TDI (50 µg·kg(-1)·d(-1)). Mean dietary intake for population aged 2-6, 7-12, 13-17, 18-59 as well as elderly aged 60 and above were 3.92 (95% CI: 0.83-7.01), 3.02 (95% CI: 0.69-5.36), 2.17 (95% CI: 0.54-3.81), 1.83 (95% CI: 0.46-3.21) and 1.66 (95% CI: 0.38-2.94) µg·kg(-1)·d(-1) respectively. The 97.5 percentile intakes in the general populations was 4.73 µg·kg(-1)·d(-1), accounting for 9.46% of TDI. Main food sources of DEHP were rice (28.4% (0.59/2.07)), melon solanaceous vegetables (14.7% (0.30/2.07)) and flour (13.2% (0.27/2.07)) for the general population. CONCLUSION: The results suggested that dietary exposure to DEHP among Chinese population was lower than tolerable daily intake of DEHP and there were no health concerns based on generally accepted exposure limits. Rice, melon solanaceous vegetables and flour were main food contributors of DEHP dietary intake for Chinese populations.

[Applicability of thresholds of toxicological concern in the chronic dietary risk assessment of transformation products of pesticide active substance].

OBJECTIVE: To establish the threshold of toxicological concern(TTC) approach and to apply it in the risk assessment of metabolites, degradation and reaction products of pirimicarb. METHODS: TTC decision tree approach based on Cramer classification was established and Lazar software was used to predict the genotoxicity of the seven transformation products of pirimicarb, namely, R34836, R34885, R35140, R31805, R34865, R16210 and R16192. Dietary exposure in general population as well as in six age population groups was estimated by using data from the Chinese National Nutrition and Health Survey and pirimicarb residue data from national chemical surveillance data in 2011. TTC decision tree approach was used for risk assessment and the exposure was compared with the corresponding TTC values. RESULTS: Of the seven transformations of pirimicarb active substance, namely, R34836, R34885, R35140, R31805, R34865, R16210 and R16192, the maximum dietary exposure of mean and large portion(P 97.5) were all belong to 2-6 age group. The mean exposures of the seven transformation products for 2-6 age group,were 0.0290, 0.0207, 0.0015, 0.0320, 0.0005, 0.6918 and 0.1274 µg/kg,respectively, and the corresponding P 97.5 exposures were 0.0817,0.0581,0.0042,0.0900,0.0014, 1.9459 and 0.3585 µg/kg. Besides, the mean and P 97.5 exposure of R16210 for 2-6 age group was the largest,which were 0.6918 and 1.9459 µg/kg, accounting for 46.12% and 129.73% of the TTC threshold,respectively. CONCLUSION: TTC decision tree approach is a useful tool for prior screening and primary risk assessment of the transformation products of pesticide active substance.

[Assessment of dietary iodine intake of population in non-high-iodine areas in China].

OBJECTIVE: To assess the potential risk of dietary iodine insufficiency of population in non-high-iodine areas (water iodine < 150 microg/L) in China. METHOD: The dietary iodine intake of 13 age-sex population groups were estimated by combining the data of iodine intake from food, table salt and drinking water. Two conditions were considered: consuming iodized salt or non-iodized salt. The data of food and table salt consumption were derived from the Chinese National Nutrition and Health Survey in 2002. Water consumption was calculated as the recommended water intake. Iodine contents of food, table salt and water were calculated from China Food Composition Table and iodine surveillance data. RESULTS: Under the condition of consuming iodized salt, the average iodine intake of all population groups was higher than the Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI), while the iodine intakes of individuals above Upper Limits (UL) and below RNI were 5.8% and 13.4% respectively, and the iodine intake of individuals lower than the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) was 9.4% in adults above 18 years of age (including pregnant and lactating women). If non-iodized salt was consumed, the average iodine intake of most sex-age population groups was higher than RNI, but the iodine intake of 97.6% of individuals would be lower than RNI, while the iodine intake of 97.4% of adults would be lower than EAR. The contribution of iodine from table salt was much higher than that from drinking water and food in the condition of consuming iodized salt, while food was the predominant contributor of dietary iodine in the condition of consuming non-iodized salt. CONCLUSION: The health risk of iodine deficiency was higher than that of iodine excess in areas where water iodine was < 150 p.g/L in China, and the risk of iodine insufficiency was much higher if non-iodized salt was consumed. Iodized salt should be the main sources of dietary iodine intake for population in areas where water iodine was < 150 microg/L in China.