Guía de práctica clínica para el tamizaje, diagnóstico y manejo de la enfermedad renal crónica en estadios 1 al 3 en el Seguro Social del Perú (EsSalud) / Clinical practice guideline for the screening, diagnosis, and management of chronic kidney disease stages 1-3 for the Peruvian Social Security (EsSalud)

RESUMEN El presente artículo resume la guía de práctica clínica (GPC) para tamizaje, diagnóstico y manejo de los pacientes con enfermedad renal crónica (ERC) en los estadios 1 al 3 en el Seguro Social del Perú (EsSalud). Para el desarrollo de esta GPC, se conformó un grupo elaborador de la guía (GEG) que incluyó especialistas clínicos y metodólogos, el cual formuló ocho preguntas clínicas. Para responder cada pregunta se realizaron búsquedas sistemáticas de revisiones sistemáticas y, cuando fue considerado pertinente, de estudios primarios; y se seleccionó la evidencia pertinente. La certeza de la evidencia fue evaluada usando la metodología Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE). En reuniones periódicas, el GEG usó la metodología GRADE para revisar la evidencia y emitir las recomendaciones. Se emitieron ocho recomendaciones (cuatro fuertes y cuatro condicionales), 29 puntos de buena práctica clínica, y tres flujogramas.

ABSTRACT This paper summarizes the clinical practice guidelines (CPG) for the screening, diagnosis, and management of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages 1-3 in the Social Security of Peru (EsSalud). A guideline development group (GDG) was established for develop this CPG, which included clinical and methodology specialists, who formulated 08 clinical questions. Systematic searches of systematic reviews and, when considered necessary, primary studies were conducted to answer each question; and relevant evidence was selected. The certainty of the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology. In periodic work meetings, the GDG used the GRADE methodology for reviewing the evidence and for developing recommendations. At the end, this CPG formulated 08 recommendations (04 strong and 04 conditional), 29 points of good clinical practice, and 03 flowcharts were formulated.

The health and economic burden of smoking in 12 Latin American countries and the potential effect of increasing tobacco taxes: an economic modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, smoking tobacco causes 7 million deaths annually, and this toll is expected to increase, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. In Latin America, smoking is a leading risk factor for death and disability, contributes to poverty, and imposes an economic burden on health systems. Despite being one of the most effective measures to reduce smoking, tobacco taxation is underused and cigarettes are more affordable in Latin America than in other regions. Our aim was to estimate the tobacco-attributable burden on mortality, disease incidence, quality of life lost, and medical costs in 12 Latin American countries, and the expected health and economic effects of increasing tobacco taxes. METHODS: In this modelling study, we developed a Markov probabilistic microsimulation economic model of the natural history, medical costs, and quality-of-life losses associated with the most common tobacco-related diseases in 12 countries in Latin America. Data inputs were obtained through a literature review, vital statistics, and hospital databases from each country: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. The main outcomes of the model are life-years, quality-adjusted life-years, disease events, hospitalisations, disease incidence, disease cost, and healthy years of life lost. We estimated direct medical costs for each tobacco-related disease included in the model using a common costing methodology for each country. The disease burden was estimated as the difference in disease events, deaths, and associated costs between the results predicted by the model for current smoking prevalence and a hypothetical cohort of people in each country who had never smoked. The model estimates the health and financial effects of a price increase of cigarettes through taxes, in terms of disease and health-care costs averted, and increased tax revenues. FINDINGS: In the 12 Latin American countries analysed, we estimated that smoking is responsible for approximately 345 000 (12%) of the total 2 860 921 adult deaths, 2·21 million disease events, 8·77 million healthy years of life lost, and $26·9 billion in direct medical costs annually. Health-care costs attributable to smoking were estimated to represent 6·9% of the health budgets of these countries, equivalent to 0·6% of their gross domestic product. Tax revenues from cigarette sales cover 36·0% of the estimated health expenditures caused by smoking. We estimated that a 50% increase in cigarette price through taxation would avert more than 300 000 deaths, 1·3 million disease events, gain 9 million healthy life-years, and save $26·7 billion in health-care costs in the next 10 years, with a total economic benefit of $43·7 billion. INTERPRETATION: Smoking represents a substantial health and economic burden in these 12 countries of Latin America. Tobacco tax increases could successfully avert deaths and disability, reduce health-care spending, and increase tax revenues, resulting in large net economic benefits. FUNDING: International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada.

Carga de enfermedad por tabaquismo e impacto potencial del incremento de precios de cigarrillos en el Perú / Burden of smoking-related disease and potential impact of cigarette price increase in Peru

RESUMEN Objetivos . Estimar la carga de enfermedad asociada al tabaquismo y evaluar el potencial impacto económico y en salud del aumento de los impuestos a los cigarrillos en el Perú. Materiales y métodos. Mediante un modelo de microsimulación se estimó el impacto en mortalidad, calidad de vida y costos atribuibles al tabaquismo por enfermedad cardiaca y cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, neumonía, cáncer de pulmón y otras nueve neoplasias. Se evaluaron tres escenarios de aumento de impuestos. Resultados . Un total anual de 16 719 muertes, 6926 diagnósticos de cáncer, 7936 accidentes cerebrovasculares y 7548 hospitalizaciones por enfermedad cardiovascular se pueden atribuir al tabaquismo en Perú. Asimismo, se pierden 396 069 años de vida por muerte prematura y discapacidad cada año, y el costo de tratar los problemas de salud ocasionados por el tabaco asciende a 2500 millones de soles (PEN 2015). Actualmente, los impuestos al tabaco llegan a cubrir solamente el 9,1% de dicho gasto. Un incremento del 50% en el precio de los cigarrillos podría evitar 13 391 muertes, 6210 eventos cardiovasculares y 5361 nuevos cánceres en los próximos diez años, y representaría un beneficio económico de 3145 millones (PEN) por ahorro de costos sanitarios y aumento de la recaudación impositiva. Conclusiones . La carga de enfermedad y el costo para el sistema de salud asociados al tabaquismo son elevados en Perú. Incrementar los impuestos al cigarrillo podría derivar en importantes beneficios para el país, tanto sanitarios como económicos.

ABSTRACT Objectives . To calculate the burden of smoking-related disease and evaluate the potential economic and health impact of tax-induced cigarette price increase in Peru. Materials and methods. A microsimulation model was used to estimate smoking-attributable impact on mortality, quality of life, and costs associated with heart and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, lung cancer, and another nine cancers. Three scenarios, involving increased taxes, were evaluated. Results . A yearly total of 16,719 deaths, 6,926 cancer diagnoses, 7,936 strokes, and 7,548 hospital admissions due to cardiovascular disease can be attributed to smoking in Peru. Similarly, 396,069 years of life are lost each year from premature death and disability, and the cost of treating smoking-attributable health issues rises to 2,500 million soles (PEN 2015). Currently, taxes on tobacco cover only 9.1% of this expense. If cigarette prices were to increase by 50% over the next 10 years, 13,391 deaths, 6,210 cardiovascular events, and 5,361 new cancers could be prevented, representing an economic benefit of 3,145 million (PEN) in savings in health costs and increases in tax revenues. Conclusions . Smoking-attributable burden of disease and costs to the health system are very high in Peru. Higher cigarette taxes could have substantial health and economic benefits for the country.

Impacto económico del tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina: un estudio en siete países y su extrapolación a nivel regional / Financial impact of smoking on health systems in Latin America: A study of seven countries and extrapolation to the regional level

Objetivo. Estimar los costos médicos directos atribuibles al tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina. Métodos. Se utilizó un modelo de microsimulación para cuantificar el impacto económico en enfermedad cardiovascular y cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica (EPOC), neumonía, cáncer de pulmón y otras nueve neoplasias. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de datos epidemiológicos y de costos de los eventos. El modelo se calibró y validó para Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú, países que representan el 78% de la población de América Latina; luego se extrapolaron los resultados a nivel regional. Resultados. Cada año el tabaquismo es responsable de 33 576 millones de dólares en costos directos para el sistema de salud. Esto equivale a 0,7% del producto interno bruto (PIB) de la región y a 8,3% del presupuesto sanitario. La enfermedad cardiovascular, la EPOC y el cáncer fueron responsables de 30,3%, 26,9% y 23,7% de este gasto, respectivamente. El costo atribuible al tabaquismo varió entre 0,4% (México y Perú) y 0,9% (Chile) del PIB y entre 5,2% (Brasil) y 12,7% (Bolivia) del gasto en salud. En la región, la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos apenas cubre 37% del gasto sanitario atribuible al tabaquismo (8,1% en Bolivia y 67,3% en Argentina). Conclusiones. El tabaquismo es responsable de una importante proporción del gasto sanitario en América Latina, y la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos está lejos de llegar a cubrirlo. La profundización de medidas como el aumento de impuestos al tabaco debería ser seriamente considerada por los países de la Región.

Objective. Estimate smoking-attributable direct medical costs in Latin American health systems. Methods. A microsimulation model was used to quantify financial impact of cardio-vascular and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, lung cancer, and nine other neoplasms. A systematic search for epidemio-logical data and event costs was carried out. The model was calibrated and validated for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, countries that account for 78% of Latin America’s population; the results were then extrapolated to the regional level. Results. Every year, smoking is responsible for 33 576 billion dollars in direct costs to health systems. This amounts to 0.7% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 8.3% of its health budget. Cardiovascular disease, COPD, and cancer were respon-sible for 30.3%, 26.9%, and 23.7% of these expenditures, respectively. Smoking-attributable costs ranged from 0.4% (Mexico and Peru) to 0.9% (Chile) of GDP and from 5.2% (Brazil) to 12.7% (Bolivia) of health expenditures. In the region, tax reve-nues from cigarette sales barely cover 37% of smoking-attributable health expenditu-res (8.1% in Bolivia and 67.3% in Argentina). Conclusions. Smoking is responsible for a significant proportion of health spending in Latin America, and tax revenues from cigarette sales are far from covering it. The region’s countries should seriously consider stronger measures, such as an increase in tobacco taxes.

[Burden of smoking-related disease and potential impact of cigarette price increase in Peru]. / Carga de enfermedad por tabaquismo e impacto potencial del incremento de precios de cigarrillos en el Perú.

OBJECTIVES: . To calculate the burden of smoking-related disease and evaluate the potential economic and health impact of tax-induced cigarette price increase in Peru. MATERIALS AND METHODS.: A microsimulation model was used to estimate smoking-attributable impact on mortality, quality of life, and costs associated with heart and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, lung cancer, and another nine cancers. Three scenarios, involving increased taxes, were evaluated. RESULTS: . A yearly total of 16,719 deaths, 6,926 cancer diagnoses, 7,936 strokes, and 7,548 hospital admissions due to cardiovascular disease can be attributed to smoking in Peru. Similarly, 396,069 years of life are lost each year from premature death and disability, and the cost of treating smoking-attributable health issues rises to 2,500 million soles (PEN 2015). Currently, taxes on tobacco cover only 9.1% of this expense. If cigarette prices were to increase by 50% over the next 10 years, 13,391 deaths, 6,210 cardiovascular events, and 5,361 new cancers could be prevented, representing an economic benefit of 3,145 million (PEN) in savings in health costs and increases in tax revenues. CONCLUSIONS: . Smoking-attributable burden of disease and costs to the health system are very high in Peru. Higher cigarette taxes could have substantial health and economic benefits for the country.

[Cultural adaptation and psychometric validation of the health-related quality of life questionnaire EORTC QLQ STO-22 for patients with gastric cancer in Peru]. / Adaptación cultural y validación psicométrica del cuestionario de calidad de vida EORTC QLQ STO-22 para los pacientes con cáncer gástrico en el Perú.

OBJECTIVE: To validate the health-related quality of life questionnaire EORTC QLQ STO-22 for patients with gastric cancer in Peru, evaluating cultural and psychometric characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The first phase consisted in measure the content and appearance validity. In the second phase, the questionnaire was applied to patients diagnosed with gastric cancer and the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and criterion validity was determined. RESULTS: After performing the content and appearance validity the questions/items 31 and 39 were changed. The global Cronbach's α was 0.90 and α coefficients greater than 0.7 in the multi-item subscales was obtained. The test-retest reliability showed an overall correlation of 0.924. When analyzing the convergent and discriminant validity, the values of Pearson's "r" were higher between an item and its own subscale, than the same item with other multi-item sub-scales. The criterion validity of the EORTC QLQ STO-22 compared with the EORTC QLQ C-30 showed a positive correlation of 0.727 with items evaluating symptomatology, and a negative correlation of -0.587 when comparing with functional status items, both statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The modified questionnaire EORTC QLQ STO-22 meets the reliability and validity criteria for assessing the quality of life in patients with gastric cancer in Peru.

¿Llegan oportunamente los pacientes con nefropatía diabética al servicio de Nefrología del Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia durante el periodo enero 2011- enero 2012? / Do patients with diabetic nephropathy arrive on time to the Nephrology Service in Cayetano Heredia Hospital? A one-year assessment: january 2011-january 2012

La nefropatía diabética está reportada, a nivel local, como la primera causa de enfermedad renal crónica terminal; no se puede efectuar prevención secundaria en estos pacientes por la llegada inoportuna a la primera consulta nefrológica. Objetivos: Determinar la proporción de pacientes con nefropatía diabética que llegan en forma oportuna a la primera consulta nefrológica en el Hospital Cayetano Heredia. Material y Método: Se obtuvieron datos demográficos, clínicos y de laboratorio de 73 pacientes con diagnóstico de Diabetes mellitus 2 durante el periodo de enero de 2011 - enero 2012. Se describen tasas y proporciones. Resultados: De 73 pacientes evaluados, 50 (68,49%) llegaron en forma inoportuna (nefropatía diabética estadio IV y V de Mogensen), siendo predominante el estadio IV en 47 (64,38%) y estadio V en 3 (4,11%). Sólo 7 (9,59 %) llegaron en estadio II y ningún paciente llegó en estadio I. 12 (92,31%) fueron transferidos de la Emergencia. Los niveles de depuración de creatinina tuvieron una media en 59,24 ± 43 2 cc/min x 1,73 m sc (1,86-293). Los valores de la proteinuria fueron 2,353 ± 3,291 gr/24 horas, con un rango (29 - 15103 gr) de los cuales 43 (61,43%) presentaron proteinuria significativa, 14 (20%) proteinuria masiva y 3 (4,29%) en rango maligno. Conclusiones: En esta serie la mayor proporción de pacientes con nefropatía diabética llegan en forma inoportuna o en estadios avanzados de enfermedad renal crónica a la consulta externa nefrológica.

Diabetic nephropathy has been reported in Peru as the first cause for end-stage kidney disease; and secondary prevention cannot not take place because of patients coming so late for their first nephrology assessment. Objectives: To determine the proportion of patients with diabetic nephropathy who come on time for their first nephrology assessment in Cayetano Heredia Hospital. Material and Method: We obtained demographic, clinical, and laboratory data from 73 patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus between January 2011 and January 2012. We describe rates and proportions. Results: Of these 73 patients assessed, 50 (68,49%) arrived with advanced kidney disease to the nephrology outpatient clinic (diabetic nephropathy, Mogensen stages IV and V), stage IV was the most frequent presentation, it was found in 47 patients (64,38%), and 3 (4,11%) arrived to the clinic with stage V diabetic nephropathy. Only 7 patients (9,59%) arrived in stage II, and no stage I patient ever arrived to the hospital. Twelve patients (92,31%) were referred from the Emergency Department. Mean creatinine clearance values were 59,24 ± 43 cc/min x 1,73 m2 body surface area (1,86-293). Proteinuria values were 2,353 ± 3,291 g/24 hours, within this range (29-15103 g), and 43 (61,43%) patients showed significant proteinuria, 14 (20%) had massive proteinuria, and 3 (4,29%) were considered to have malignant proteinuria. Conclusions: Most diabetic nephropathy patients in this report arrive late to the nephrology outpatient clinic, most frequently presenting with advanced kidney disease.

Evaluación de la sensibilidad del cultivo de semen en el diagnóstico de prostatitis bacteriana crónica / Assessment of the sensitivity of semen culture in the diagnosis of chronic bacterial prostatitis

Objetivo: Evaluar la sensibilidad del cultivo de semen en el diagnóstico de pacientes con prostatis bacteriana crónica (PBC). Materiales y métodos: Es un estudio de serie de casos prospectivos y analíticos realizado en varones con clínica sugerente de PBC y sin tratamiento previo. Se evaluaron variables clínicas, demográficas y de laboratorio. A todos los pacientes se les realizó la prueba de Meares y Stamey y la prueba a la que denominamos. Alterna (espermocultivo y 3 urocultivo). Se evaluó la sensibilidad del cultivo de semen. Resultados: De 130 pacientes, solo en 69 se realizaron ambas pruebas. La edad promedio fue de 37.07±11.16 años. El tiempo promedio de enfermedad antes de acudir a consulta médica fue de 12.5 meses. El síntoma más frecuente fue el dolor testicular bilateral presente en 32 (46.59 por ciento) pacientes. El examen digito rectal de la próstata fue normal en 64 (92.75 por ciento) de los pacientes. La prueba alterna fue positiva en 7 (10.14 por ciento) casos siendo Escherichia coli el germen más frecuentemente aislado en el cultivo de semen. La prueba de Meares y Stamey fue positiva en todos los pacientes. Staphylococcus aureus fue el germen más frecuentemente encontrado en el cultivo de secreción prostática. La sensibilidad del cultivo de semen para el diagnóstico de PBC fue de 10.14 por ciento. Conclusión: En nuestro estudio el cultivo de semen tiene una baja sensibilidad en el diagnóstico de PBC y su empleo nos llevaría a sub diagnosticar esta condición.