Evaluating the Cost-Effectiveness of the ABCDE Bundle: Impact of Bundle Adherence on Inpatient and 1-Year Mortality and Costs of Care.

OBJECTIVES: Growing evidence supports the Awakening and Breathing Coordination, Delirium monitoring/management, and Early exercise/mobility (ABCDE) bundle processes as improving a number of short- and long-term clinical outcomes for patients requiring ICU care. To assess the cost-effectiveness of this intervention, we determined the impact of ABCDE bundle adherence on inpatient and 1-year mortality, quality-adjusted life-years, length of stay, and costs of care. DESIGN: We conducted a 2-year, prospective, cost-effectiveness study in 12 adult ICUs in six hospitals belonging to a large, integrated healthcare delivery system. SETTING: Hospitals included a large, urban tertiary referral center and five community hospitals. ICUs included medical/surgical, trauma, neurologic, and cardiac care units. PATIENTS: The study included 2,953 patients, 18 years old or older, with an ICU stay greater than 24 hours, who were on a ventilator for more than 24 hours and less than 14 days. INTERVENTION: ABCDE bundle. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We used propensity score-adjusted regression models to determine the impact of high bundle adherence on inpatient mortality, discharge status, length of stay, and costs. A Markov model was used to estimate the potential effect of improved bundle adherence on healthcare costs and quality-adjusted life-years in the year following ICU admission. We found that patients with high ABCDE bundle adherence (≥ 60%) had significantly decreased odds of inpatient mortality (odds ratio 0.28) and significantly higher costs ($3,920) of inpatient care. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of high bundle adherence was $15,077 (95% CI, $13,675-$16,479) per life saved and $1,057 per life-year saved. High bundle adherence was associated with a 0.12 increase in quality-adjusted life-years, a $4,949 increase in 1-year care costs, and an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $42,120 per quality-adjusted life-year. CONCLUSIONS: The ABCDE bundle appears to be a cost-effective means to reduce in-hospital and 1-year mortality for patients with an ICU stay.

Association of Opioid-Related Adverse Drug Events With Clinical and Cost Outcomes Among Surgical Patients in a Large Integrated Health Care Delivery System.

Importance: Opioids are commonly used for pain control during and after invasive procedures. However, opioid-related adverse drug events (ORADEs) are common and have been associated with worse patient outcomes. Objectives: To examine the incidence of ORADEs in patients undergoing hospital-based surgical and endoscopic procedures and to evaluate the association of ORADEs with clinical and cost outcomes. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this retrospective study of clinical and administrative data, ORADEs were identified using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision diagnosis codes for known adverse effects of opioids or by opioid antagonist use. Multivariable regression analysis was used to measure the association of ORADEs with outcomes after adjusting for potential confounding factors. The setting was 21 acute care hospitals in a large integrated health care delivery system. Participants were 135 379 patients (aged ≥18 years, admitted from January 1, 2013, to September 30, 2015) who underwent surgical and endoscopic procedures and were given opioids. Exposure: Opioid use, reported as morphine milligram equivalent doses. Main Outcomes and Measures: Opioid-related adverse drug events and their association with inpatient mortality, discharge to another care facility, length of stay, cost of hospitalization, and 30-day readmission. Results: Among 135 379 adult patients in this study (67.5% female), 14 386 (10.6%) experienced at least one ORADE. Patients with ORADEs were more likely to be older, of white race/ethnicity, and male and have more comorbidities. Patients with ORADEs received a higher total dose of opioids (median morphine milligram equivalent dose, 46.8 vs 30.0 mg; P < .001) and for a longer duration (median, 3.0 vs 2.0 days; P < .001). In adjusted analyses, ORADEs were associated with increased inpatient mortality (odds ratio [OR], 28.8; 95% CI, 24.0-34.5), greater likelihood of discharge to another care facility (OR, 2.9; 95% CI, 2.7-3.0), prolonged length of stay (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 2.8-3.4), high cost of hospitalization (OR, 2.7; 95% CI, 2.4-3.0), and higher rate of 30-day readmission (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.2-1.4). ORADEs were associated with a 2.9% increase in absolute mortality, an $8225 increase in cost for the index hospitalization, and a 1.6-day increase in length of stay for the index hospitalization. Conclusions and Relevance: Opioid-related adverse drug events were common among patients undergoing hospital-based invasive procedures and were associated with significantly worse clinical and cost outcomes. Hospital-acquired harm from ORADEs in the surgical patient population is an important opportunity for health systems to improve patient safety and reduce cost.

The High Value Healthcare Collaborative: Observational Analyses of Care Episodes for Hip and Knee Arthroplasty Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Broader use of value-based reimbursement models will require providers to transparently demonstrate health care value. We sought to determine and report cost and quality data for episodes of hip and knee arthroplasty surgery among 13 members of the High Value Healthcare Collaborative (HVHC), a consortium of health care systems interested in improving health care value. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, cross-sectional observational cohort study of 30-day episodes of care for hip and knee arthroplasty in fee-for-service Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 or older who had hip or knee osteoarthritis and used 1 of 13 HVHC member systems for uncomplicated primary hip arthroplasty (N = 8853) or knee arthroplasty (N = 16,434), respectively, in 2012 or 2013. At the system level, we calculated: per-capita utilization rates; postoperative complication rates; standardized total, acute, and postacute care Medicare expenditures for 30-day episodes of care; and the modeled impact of reducing episode expenditures or per-capita utilization rates. RESULTS: Adjusted per-capita utilization rates varied across HVHC systems and postacute care reimbursements varied more than 3-fold for both types of arthroplasty in both years. Regression analysis confirmed that total episode and postacute care reimbursements significantly differed across HVHC members after considering patient demographic differences. Potential Medicare cost savings were greatest for knee arthroplasty surgery and when lower total reimbursement targets were achieved. CONCLUSION: The substantial variation that we found offers opportunities for learning and collaboration to collectively improve outcomes, reduce costs, and enhance value. Ceteris paribus, reducing per-episode reimbursements would achieve greater Medicare cost savings than reducing per-capita rates.

A Review of Multifaceted Care Approaches for the Prevention and Mitigation of Delirium in Intensive Care Units.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this review is to examine the effectiveness, implementation, and costs of multifaceted care approaches, including care bundles, for the prevention and mitigation of delirium in patients hospitalized in intensive care units (ICUs). DATA SOURCES: A systematic search using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was conducted utilizing PubMed, EMBASE, and CINAHL. Searches were limited to studies published in English from January 1, 1988, to March 31, 2014. Randomized controlled trials and comparative studies of multifaceted care approaches with the reduction of delirium in ICU patients as an outcome and evaluations of the implementation or cost-effectiveness of these interventions were included. DATA EXTRACTION: Data on study methods including design, cohort size, interventions, and outcomes were abstracted, reviewed, and summarized. Given the variability in study design, populations, and interventions, a qualitative review of findings was conducted. DATA SYNTHESIS: In all, 14 studies met our inclusion criteria: 6 examined outcomes, 5 examined implementation, 2 examined outcomes and implementation, and 1 examined cost-effectiveness. The majority of studies indicated that multifaceted care approaches were associated with improved patient outcomes including reduced incidence and duration of delirium. Additionally, improvements in functional status and reductions in coma and ventilator days, hospital length of stay, and/or mortality rates were observed. Implementation strategies included structured quality improvement approaches with ongoing audit and feedback, multidisciplinary care teams, intensive training, electronic reporting systems, and local support teams. The cost-effectiveness analysis indicated an average reduction of $1000 in hospital costs for patients treated with a multifaceted care approach. CONCLUSION: Although multifaceted care approaches may reduce delirium and improve patient outcomes, greater improvements may be achieved by deploying a comprehensive bundle of care practices including awakening and breathing trials, delirium monitoring and treatment, and early mobility. Further research to address this knowledge gap is essential to providing best care for ICU patients.

Development and Validation of an Algorithm to Identify Planned Readmissions From Claims Data.

BACKGROUND: It is desirable not to include planned readmissions in readmission measures because they represent deliberate, scheduled care. OBJECTIVES: To develop an algorithm to identify planned readmissions, describe its performance characteristics, and identify improvements. DESIGN: Consensus-driven algorithm development and chart review validation study at 7 acute-care hospitals in 2 health systems. PATIENTS: For development, all discharges qualifying for the publicly reported hospital-wide readmission measure. For validation, all qualifying same-hospital readmissions that were characterized by the algorithm as planned, and a random sampling of same-hospital readmissions that were characterized as unplanned. MEASUREMENTS: We calculated weighted sensitivity and specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of the algorithm (version 2.1), compared to gold standard chart review. RESULTS: In consultation with 27 experts, we developed an algorithm that characterizes 7.8% of readmissions as planned. For validation we reviewed 634 readmissions. The weighted sensitivity of the algorithm was 45.1% overall, 50.9% in large teaching centers and 40.2% in smaller community hospitals. The weighted specificity was 95.9%, positive predictive value was 51.6%, and negative predictive value was 94.7%. We identified 4 minor changes to improve algorithm performance. The revised algorithm had a weighted sensitivity 49.8% (57.1% at large hospitals), weighted specificity 96.5%, positive predictive value 58.7%, and negative predictive value 94.5%. Positive predictive value was poor for the 2 most common potentially planned procedures: diagnostic cardiac catheterization (25%) and procedures involving cardiac devices (33%). CONCLUSIONS: An administrative claims-based algorithm to identify planned readmissions is feasible and can facilitate public reporting of primarily unplanned readmissions.

Documentation of the 5 as for smoking cessation by PCPs across distinct health systems.

OBJECTIVES: Physicians can help patients quit smoking using the 5 As of smoking cessation. This study aimed to (1) identify the proportion of known smokers that receive smoking cessation services in the course of routine clinical practice; (2) describe demographic and comorbidity characteristics of patients receiving the 5 As in these systems; and (3) evaluate differences in performance of the 5 As across health systems, gender, and age categories. STUDY DESIGN: Electronic medical records of 200 current smokers from 6 unique health systems (N = 1200) were randomly selected from 2006 to 2010. Primary care encounter progress notes were hand coded for occurrences of the 5 As. METHODS: Bivariate comparisons of delivery of the 3 smoking-cessation services by site, gender, and age category were analyzed using χ² tests. RESULTS: About 50% of smokers were advised to quit smoking, 39% were assessed for their readiness to quit, and 54% received some type of assistance to help them quit smoking. Only 2% had a documented plan for follow-up regarding their quitting efforts (arrange). Significant differences were found among sites for documentation of receiving the 5 As and between age groups receiving assistance with quitting. There was no statistically significant difference between genders in receipt of the 5 As. CONCLUSIONS: Documentation of adherence to the 5 As varied by site and some demographics. Adjustments to protocols for addressing cessation and readiness to quit may be warranted. Health systems could apply the methodology described in this paper to assess their own performance, and then use that as a basis to guide improvement initiatives.

Safety-focused medication therapy management: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of a medication therapy management (MTM) intervention on adverse drug events (ADEs), health care visits, and drug-related problems (DRPs). DESIGN: Randomized, controlled, clinical trial. SETTING: Academic medical center community pharmacies and family medicine clinics at three U.S. sites between December 2007 and January 2010 PATIENTS: Individuals aged 65 years or older with three or more chronic illnesses, six or more prescription medications, and at risk for a DRP. INTERVENTION: At 0 and 3 months, pharmacists conducted comprehensive medication reviews and screened for and resolved DRPs through patient education and recommendations to physicians. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Frequency of ADEs reported by patients and confirmed by clinical algorithm, health care visits at 3 and 6 months, and number of DRPs, pharmacist recommendations, and medication discrepancies. RESULTS: 637 participants enrolled. No differences were observed in potential ADEs or health care visits among the usual care and MTM groups. DRPs declined in both MTM intervention groups over time. Physicians responded to 54.6% of pharmacist recommendations. Enhanced MTM patients had fewer medication list discrepancies than basic MTM patients (33.8% vs. 47.1%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This specific design of MTM was associated with reduced DRPs but did not reduce potential ADEs or health care visits.

Patient safety-focused medication therapy management: challenges affecting future implementation.

OBJECTIVES/BACKGROUND: Lessons learned from the implementation of a pharmacist-delivered medication therapy management (MTM) intervention in primary care (PC) can inform future MTM studies and be adopted into real-world clinical settings. We sought to describe the variations and challenges of patient recruitment, enrollment, MTM pharmacist visits, and telephone follow-up in a 3-arm randomized trial of MTM interventions conducted at 3 health centers. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS: Using a post-study structured interview, we interviewed study personnel, clinical pharmacists, and investigators about 5 study domains: recruitment, enrollment visits, MTM pharmacist visits, telephone follow-up, and data collection. RESULTS: All centers screened clinic schedules and conducted queries of administrative databases to identify eligible participants. Patients were recruited either during existing primary care visits or by mailing letters with telephone follow-up. Patients with many medical problems, with transportation difficulties, or who were unaccompanied by a family member were less likely to enroll. MTM visits scheduled separately from other clinic appointments had higher cancellation or no-show rates. Provider response to pharmacist recommendations was low overall but better when the provider was acquainted with the pharmacist who was making contact. CONCLUSIONS: Off-site implementation of MTM services results in lower participation by patients and providers. Future MTM studies should consider integrating MTM services within the clinic during existing appointments by a pharmacist familiar to the primary care provider.

Reduction of 30-day postdischarge hospital readmission or emergency department (ED) visit rates in high-risk elderly medical patients through delivery of a targeted care bundle.

RATIONALE: Care coordination has shown inconsistent results as a mechanism to reduce hospital readmission and postdischarge emergency department (ED) visit rates. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of a supplemental care bundle targeting high-risk elderly inpatients implemented by hospital-based staff compared to usual care on a composite outcome of hospital readmission and/or ED visitation at 30 and 60 days following discharge. PATIENTS/METHODS: Randomized controlled pilot study in 41 medical inpatients predisposed to unplanned readmission or postdischarge ED visitation, conducted at Baylor University Medical Center. The intervention group care bundle consisted of medication counseling/reconciliation by a clinical pharmacist (CP), condition specific education/enhanced discharge planning by a care coordinator (CC), and phone follow-up. RESULTS: Groups had similar baseline characteristics. Intervention group readmission/ED visit rates were reduced at 30 days compared to the control group (10.0% versus 38.1%, P = 0.04), but not at 60 days (30.0% versus 42.9%, P = 0.52). For those patients who had a readmission/postdischarge ED visit, the time interval to this event was longer in the intervention group compared to usual care (36.2 versus 15.7 days, P = 0.05). Study power was insufficient to reliably compare the effects of the intervention on lengths of index hospital stay between groups. CONCLUSIONS: A targeted care bundle delivered to high-risk elderly inpatients decreased unplanned acute health care utilization up to 30 days following discharge. Dissipation of this effect by 60 days postdischarge defines reasonable expectations for analogous hospital-based educational interventions. Further research is needed regarding the impacts of similar care bundles in larger populations across a variety of inpatient settings.