Experience of healthcare personnel on Co-payment mechanism and the implications on its use in private drug outlets in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Malaria treatment is faced with the challenge of access, affordability, availability, and quality of antimalarial medicines. Affordable medicines facility-malaria (AMFm) program and subsequently Co-payment mechanism were developed to help increase access to quality assured Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) in seven countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We explored through a qualitative study, experience of healthcare personnel on Co-payment mechanism and the implication on its use in private drug outlets in Uganda. METHOD: Private drug outlets that reported stocking antimalarial agents in moderate-to-high and low malaria transmission settings were purposively selected for inclusion in the study. In each drug outlet, data was collected from a pharmacist/dispenser through key informant interview. The interview was done using a key informant interview guide which covered the following areas, (i) sociodemographic characteristics, ii) awareness of healthcare personnel on the co-payment mechanism, (iii) awareness of healthcare personnel on quality assured artemisinin combination therapies (QAACT), (iv) antimalarial stocking in private drug outlets, (v) antimalarial dispensing prices, (vi) considerations made while stocking, and pricing antimalarial agents, vii) challenges in antimalarial dispensing, and (viii) access to antimalarial agents in private drug outlets. Data was managed using Atlas.ti and analyzed using framework methodology. RESULTS: Data was collected from 25 key informants (12 pharmacists and 13 dispensers). Five themes emerged following data analysis, (i) antimalarial stocking influenced by price and client demand, (ii) access and purchasing behavior of drug outlet clients, (iii) basis of dispensing antimalarial agents in private drug outlets, (iv) awareness of QAACT, and (v) awareness of Co-payment mechanism. None of the study participants was aware of the existence of Co-payment mechanism and QAACT in the private sector. Duocotecin brand of ACTs was the most mentioned and dispensed ACT among the study participants in private drug outlets. Nearly all the pharmacists/dispensers said that many clients who request to purchase ACTs don't come with a prescription and prefer buying cheaper antimalarial agents. Study participants reported stocking and selling both ACTs and non-ACT antimalarial agents in the drug outlets. Pharmacists/dispensers in the drug outlets reported that most clients could not afford buying a full dose of an ACT. None of the study participants considered using Co-payment mechanism while stocking ACTs in the drug outlets. CONCLUSION: There is lack of awareness and utilization of Co-payment mechanism in stocking, pricing, and dispensing of ACTs among pharmacists/dispensers in private drug outlets in Uganda. The antimalarial dispensing in drug outlets was mostly based on prescriptions, clients' preferences, and medicine affordability. The Ministry of Health needs to create demand for Co-payment mechanism through public awareness campaigns, training of healthcare personnel and behavior change communication in the private sector.

Access to quality-assured artemisinin-based combination therapy and associated factors among clients of selected private drug outlets in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Malaria treatment in sub-Saharan Africa is faced with challenges including unreliable supply of efficacious agents, substandard medicines coupled with high price of artemisinin-based combinations. This affects access to effective treatment increasing risk of malaria parasite resistance development and adverse drug events. This study investigated access to quality-assured artemisinin-based combination therapy (QAACT) medicines among clients of selected private drug-outlets in Uganda. METHODS: This was a cross sectional study where exit interviews were conducted among clients of private drug outlets in low and high malaria transmission settings in Uganda. This study adapted the World Health Organization/Health Action International (WHO/HAI) standardized criteria. Data was collected using a validated questionnaire. Data entry screen with checks was created in Epi-data ver 4.2 software and data entered in duplicate. Data was transferred to STATA ver 14.0 and cleaned prior to analysis. The analysis was done at 95% level of significance. RESULTS: A total of 1114 exit interviews were conducted among systematically sampled drug outlet clients. Over half, 54.9% (611/1114) of the participants were males. Majority, 97.2% (1083/1114) purchased an artemisinin-based combination anti-malarial. Most, 55.5% (618/1114) of the participants had a laboratory diagnosis of malaria. Majority, 77.9% (868/1114) of the participants obtained anti-malarial agents without a prescription. Less than a third, 27.7% (309/1114) of the participants obtained a QAACT. Of the participants who obtained QAACT, more than half 56.9% (173/309) reported finding the medicine expensive. The predictors of accessing a QAACT anti-malarial among drug outlet clients include type of drug outlet visited (aPR = 0.74; 95%CI 0.6, 0.91), not obtaining full dose (3-day treatment) of ACT (aPR = 0.49; 95%CI 0.33, 0.73), not finding the ACT expensive (aPR = 1.24; 95%CI 1.03, 1.49), post-primary education (aPR = 1.29; 95%CI 1.07,1.56), business occupation (aPR = 1.24; 95%CI 1.02,1.50) and not having a prescription (aPR = 0.76; 95%CI 0.63, 0.92). CONCLUSION: Less than a third of the private drug outlet clients obtained a QAACT for management of malaria symptoms. Individuals who did not find artemisinin-based combinations to be expensive were more likely to obtain a QAACT anti-malarial. The Ministry of Health needs to conduct regular surveillance to monitor accessibility of QAACT anti-malarial agents under the current private sector copayment mechanism.

Copayment mechanism in selected districts of Uganda: Availability, market share and price of quality assured artemisinin-based combination therapies in private drug outlets.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains one of the leading causes of morbidity, and mortality in Uganda. A large proportion of malaria symptomatic patients seek healthcare in private sector. However, availability and affordability are major barriers to access to effective treatment. The private sector copayment mechanism in Uganda aims to increase availability and affordability of antimalarial agents. Our study assessed availability, price, and market share of quality assured artemisinin-based combination therapies (QAACTs) in private drug outlets in selected districts during the implementation of copayment mechanism. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional survey of anti-malarial agents in private drug outlets in in selected moderate-to-high (Tororo, and Apac districts) and low (Kabale and Mbarara districts) malaria transmission settings. Following the World Health Organization/Health Action International (WHO/HAI) criteria, an audit of the antimalarial agents was done using a checklist to determine availability, price, and market share of QAACTs. Data were entered in Epi-data and analyzed in STATA ver 14.0 at 95% confidence level. RESULTS: A total of twenty-eight (28) private drug outlets (pharmacies and drug shops) were included in the survey. One in seven (20/144: 95%CI: 9.1, 20.6) of the antimalarial agents in private drug outlets were quality assured artemisinin-based combination therapies (QAACT). Artemether-lumefantrine (AL), 8.9% (11/124) and Artesunate-Amodiaquine (AQ), 7.3% (9/124) were the only QAACTs present in the drug outlets at the time of the survey. The majority, 86.1%% (124/144) of antimalarial agents present in stock in the drug outlets were artemisinin based. The most common, 38.9% (56/144) ACT in the drug outlets was Dihydroartemisinin-Piperaquine (DHP). Most, 69.4% (100/144) of the antimalarial agents were in high malaria transmission settings. The cost of ACT antimalarial agents is high in the country, USD 1.4 (Artemether-Lumefantrine, AL), USD 2.4 (Dihydroartemisinin-Piperaquine, DP), the first line and second-line agents respectively for treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Uganda. There was a statistically significant difference between the dispensing price of 'Green leaf' ACTs (QAACT) and the recommended price (p<0.001). Predictors of availability of QAACT in private drug outlets include pharmacy drug outlet (aPR:0.4; 95%CI: 0.2, 0.9) and dispensing price more than 3000UGX (USD 0.83) (aPR: 0.4, 95%CI: 0.1, 0.51). CONCLUSION: Quality assured artemisinin-based combination therapies (QAACTs) are not common in private drug outlets in selected districts in Uganda. All the drug outlets had at least one ACT antimalarial agent present on the day of the survey. The dispensing price of QAACTs was significantly higher than the recommended markup price. There is need for awareness creation, surveillance, and monitoring of the implementation of Copayment mechanism in the country.

Data sharing practices in collaborative human genomic research in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: The practice of creating large databases has become increasingly common by combining research participants' data into larger repositories. Funders now require that data sharing be considered in newly funded research project, unless there are justifiable reasons not to do so. Access to genomic data brings along a host of ethical concerns as well as fairness and equity in the conduct of collaborative research between researchers from high- income and low-and middle-income countries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This systematic review protocol will be developed in line with PRISMA -guidelines which refers to Open Science Framework, registered in PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/) record CRD42022297984 and published in a peer reviewed journal. Data sources will include PubMed, google scholar, EMBASE, Web of science and MEDLINE. Both published and grey literature will be searched. Subject matter experts including bioethicists, principal investigators of genomic research projects and research administrators will be contacted. After de-duplication, titles and abstracts will be screened for eligibility. Data extraction will be undertaken using a piloted form designed in EPPI-Reviewer software before conducting risk of bias assessments by a pair of reviewers, acting independently. Any discrepancies will be resolved by consensus. Analysis will be done using a structured narrative synthesis and where feasible metanalysis. This review will attempt to highlight the context of data sharing practices in the global North-South and South-South collaborative human genomic research in low- and middle-income countries. This review will enhance the body of evidence on ethical, legal and social implications of data sharing in international collaborative genomic research setting criteria for data sharing. The full report will be shared with relevant stakeholders including universities, civil society, funders, and departments of genomic research to ensure an adequate reach in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Use of antibacterials in the management of symptoms of acute respiratory tract infections among children under five years in Gulu, northern Uganda: Prevalence and determinants.

Inappropriate use of antibacterials is a major public health challenge as it can promote emergence of resistance, wastage of financial resources, morbidity and mortality. In this study, we determined the prevalence and factors associated with antibacterial use in managing symptoms of acute respiratory tract infections (ARIs) in households in rural communities of Gulu district, northern Uganda. A cross-sectional study was conducted among households selected using multi-stage sampling. Data were collected through interviews with care-givers of children under five years, using a structured interviewer administered questionnaire. Out of the 856 children who had symptoms of ARIs, 515 (60.2%; CI: 54.5%-65.6%) were treated with antibacterials. The most commonly used antibacterials were amoxicillin (55.2%, n = 358), cotrimoxazole (15.4%, n = 100) and metronidazole (11.4%, n = 74). The determinants of antibacterial use included; getting treatment from a health facility (AOR: 1.85, CI: 1.34-2.56, P < 0.001), households located in peri-urban area (AOR: 2.54, CI: 1.34-4.84, P = 0.005), and a child having cough (AOR: 7.02, CI: 4.36-11.31, P < 0.001). The prevalence of antibacterial use among children under five years with symptoms of ARIs is high in communities of Gulu district, northern Uganda. Getting treatment from a health facility, if a household was located in a peri-urban area and having a cough are positive predictors of antibacterial use. There is need for targeted education on appropriate antibacterial use in rural communities and hospital settings where over prescription is most likely especially in treating symptoms of ARIs among children under five years.

Factors predicting home storage of medicines in Northern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Medicines are kept in households Worldwide for first aid, treatment of chronic or acute disease conditions. This promotes inappropriate use of medicines and hence the associated risks. The study explored the factors which predict availability and utilization of medicines in households of Northern Uganda. METHOD: A cross sectional survey of 892 households was performed from November-to-December 2012. Five data collectors administered the questionnaires, respondents were requested to bring out any medicines present in their households. Demographic characteristics, drug name, quantity, source, formulation, legibility of drug labels and reasons why the medicines were being kept at home was collected. Data was analyzed using STATA 12.0 at 95% level of significance. RESULTS: Of the households visited, 35.1% (313/892) had drugs. Paracetamol (11.8%), coartem (11.3%), cotrimoxazole (10%), amoxicillin (9.2%) and metronidazole (8.2%) were the major medicines found. Antibacterial drugs were the most commonly (40.1%) kept type of drugs. The medicines present in households were for on-going treatment (48%); 'leftover' (30.5%) and anticipated future use (21.6%). Symptoms of malaria (34.1%) were common in households which had drugs. The medicines kept in homes were mainly from the private sector 60.5% (497/821). The rate of home drug storage was higher 85.3% (267/313) amongst the educated individuals. There was high prevalence 76% (238/313) of self-medication among respondents in households which stored drugs. The average number of medicines in each household was 6 ± 5 with majority (68.1%) having between 1-10 drugs. Previous successful treatment (OR: 1.3; 95% CI: 0.95-1.77), regular income (OR: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.2-2.6) and sex (OR: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.5-0.9) predicted storage of medicines in households in northern Uganda. CONCLUSION: Over a third of households in Northern Uganda store medicines with antibacterial agents being the most common. Self-medication is common among individuals in households which keep drugs. Past successful treatment, regular income and sex predict community home drug storage.