Which group of smokers is more vulnerable to the economic crisis?

OBJECTIVES: Studies investigating whether smoking increases or decreases during economic downturn provided contrasting results. For the first time, we used direct questions to analyse changes in smoking behaviour due to the 2008 financial crisis, comparing socio-economic characteristics of smokers who changed with those who kept their smoking intensity. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. METHODS: We used data from three annual surveys conducted in Italy in 2012-2014 on representative samples of the Italian general population aged ≥15 years. RESULTS: A total of 1919 current smokers were asked specific questions on the influence of the economic crisis that started in 2008 on their smoking behaviour. Overall, 77.4% of 1919 current smokers reported not to have changed their smoking behaviour, 19.1% to have reduced, and 3.5% to have increased their smoking intensity as a consequence of the economic crisis. The reduction in cigarette smoking increased with age: compared to the respondents aged <25 years, the multivariate odds ratio (OR) for those aged 25-44, 45-64 and ≥65 years were 0.65, 0.46 and 0.33, respectively (P for trend<0.001). Reduction was significantly lower among intermediate (OR = 0.68 compared to low) and high education levels (OR = 0.28; P for trend<0.001). A significant inverse trend for increasing consumption was observed with age (P = 0.022), education (P = 0.003) and family income (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The large majority of current smokers did not change their smoking habit following the economic crisis. However, there are specific vulnerable subgroups of smokers, constituted by the young and subjects with low socio-economic status, that were reactive to the global economic crisis. These groups are more prone to change their smoking behaviours, either for better or -, in a smaller proportion -, for worse.

Assessment of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in young adolescents following implementation of smoke-free policy in Italy.

We investigated acute and chronic exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in a cohort of young adolescents using urinary cotinine and hair nicotine testing after recent implementation of Italian smoke free legislation. Study subjects were 372 Italian young adolescents, between 10 and 16 years of age from the principal city of Sicily, Palermo. Urine and hair samples were collected between November 2005 and May 2006, when the legislation to ban smoking in all the enclosed places of employment (including bars, restaurants, pubs) was completely enforced. An exhaustive questionnaire including sociodemographic characteristics and active and passive exposure to cigarette smoking was completed. Urinary cotinine was analyzed by radioimmunoassay and hair nicotine by a validated GC/MS method. Based on urinary cotinine results, 2.1% and 89% of the study participants, respectively, showed non-exposure and low acute exposure to ETS, whereas only 1.6% presented very high exposure or a hidden active smoking habit in the recent past. Hair nicotine disclosed non-exposure and low exposure to ETS in 11.8% and 65.6% of the young adolescents, respectively, taking into consideration a larger time-window. High repeated exposure, suggesting active smoking in some cases was observed in 8.6% of the study subjects. Hair nicotine was inversely related to educational level of the adolescents' parents. Overall, due to the implementation of smoke-free legislation and information campaign against smoking, a significant trend toward low exposure to ETS was observed in this study cohort with no association between exposure to ETS and respiratory illnesses.

[Prenatal exposure to drugs of abuse using meconium analysis in a low socioeconomic population in Barcelona]. / Exposición prenatal a drogas de abuso a través del análisis de meconio en una población de bajo nivel socioeconómico en Barcelona.

INTRODUCTION: For the first time in Europe, the <> aimed to estimate the prevalence of drug use by pregnant women and the subsequent foetal exposure to illicit drugs. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Between October 2002 and February 2004, 1209 mother-infant dyads from the Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain met eligibility criteria and agreed to participate in the study. Data on socio-economic and demographic characteristics and on drug habits during pregnancy were collected using a structured questionnaire. Neonatal meconium was collected within 24h after birth and analyzed by standardized chromatographic techniques for the presence of opiates, cocaine, cannabinoids and amphetamines. RESULTS: Meconium analysis showed an overall 10.9% positivity for drugs of abuse, with a specific prevalence of heroin, cocaine and cannabis with foetal exposure of 4.7, 2.6 and 5.3%, respectively. Structured interviews also revealed that 0.3, 1.2 and 1.5% of mothers used heroin, cocaine and cannabis, respectively, while only one mother declared ecstasy consumption, confirmed by meconium analysis. Parental ethnicity and working class was not associated with drug use. Drug consuming mothers were shown to have a higher number of previous abortions when compared to non-consumer mothers, which was probably due to a lack of family planning. Significantly lower birth weight and length was found in newborns from mothers exposed to cocaine alone or in combination with other drugs. CONCLUSIONS: This study, although developed in a low socio-economic-status cohort, may serve as an eye opener for any hidden non-negligible drug consumption during pregnancy. In this sense, meconium analysis can be important to identify neonates with a high suspicion of exposure to drugs of abuse in utero, and provides the basis for appropriate treatment and adequate medical and social follow-up.

ORALVEQ: external quality assessment scheme of drugs of abuse in oral fluid: results obtained in the first round performed in 2007.

The Institut Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica IMIM-Hospital del Mar (Barcelona, Spain) in cooperation with the Istituto Superiore di Sanità (Rome, Italy) organized an external quality assessment scheme to assess the reliability of analytical laboratories when analyzing drugs of abuse in oral fluid (ORALVEQ). For the first round of ORALVEQ, performed in February 2007, three different samples (S1, S2 and S3) were sent to 21 participating international laboratories. S1 was a blank sample and S2 and S3 were prepared by addition of drugs at known concentrations to pre-screened drug-free oral fluid (containing sodium azide) and diluted up to 50% with acidic buffer. S2 contained 6-monoacetyl morphine, morphine, cocaine and benzoylecgonine and S3 contained 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine and 3,4-methylendioxyamphetamine. Results were evaluated from a qualitative and quantitative point of view. Whereas only half laboratories performed screening analysis, all of them reported a quantitative result for almost all analytes. Eighteen false-positive and 3 false-negative results were reported by 8 (from a total of 21) laboratories. The quantitative evaluation was performed measuring dispersion (% coefficient of variation, CV%) and accuracy (% error, ERR%) of results and calculating the z-score values (using robust statistics). ERR% between 2% and 20% and CVs% around 40% were obtained for all analytes. In terms of z-score, a high percentage of adequate results (between 85 and 95%) was obtained. In general, the participating laboratories had a satisfactory performance. The number of false-negatives reported was very low, the false-positives were reported by a reduced number of laboratories and the scatter in the quantitative results was principally due to a few outlying values; since applying robust statistics, there was no rejection of outliers.

Effects of new smoking regulations in Italy.

BACKGROUND: From 10 January 2005 the Italian government banned smoking in all indoor public places. We conducted a population-based survey to provide information on attitudes towards smoking regulation and to disentangle the impact of the smoking ban on tobacco consumption. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We considered data from a survey on smoking, based on 3114 subjects aged 15 or over, representative of the general adult Italian population in terms of age, sex, geographic area and socioeconomic status. RESULTS: Once smoke-free policies were introduced, support for them in the public opinion tended to increase. In Italy, smoke-free policies accounted for around 8% decrease in cigarette consumption in the short run. Moreover, tobacco bans were almost universally accepted, and the smoke-free legislation did not seem to unfavourably affect the business of restaurants or cafes. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study on the first extensive smoking ban in a large country show the advantages of smoke-free legislations, which may have major public health implications.

A survey on policies of smoking control in Italian hospitals.

BACKGROUND: In Italy National regulations forbidding smoking inside hospitals have existed since 1975. Current International medical standards for staff include refraining from smoking as an intervention of health education aimed at promoting healthy lifestyles as well as reinforcing smoking cessation advice, which staff should give patients. According to a National survey 33.3% of staff are active smokers and up to 80% of them admit to smoking in the workplace. This study was aimed at asking the hospital administrative authorities about the current situation of smoking control, according to their experience and about activities and policies they think could be effective in implementing smoking control. METHODS: As a part of a European survey, financed by the EC, 217 questionnaires were sent by mail to the General Managers of various hospitals in Italy, selected at random. The letter introducing the questionnaire was also signed by the unit of smoking control of the National Institute of Health (Rome). RESULTS: Out of the 217 questionnaires sent (56.8% in Northern Italy, 19.8% in Central Italy, 23.4% in Southern Italy), 85 (39.2%) were returned, 56.5% from Northern Italy, 22.3% from Central Italy, 21.2% from Southern Italy. Even if a smoking control policy is reported by the 82% of our sample, only 37.3% reported a complete ban of smoking. In 72% of hospitals there are no areas designated for smokers; only 51.3% provide help for smoking cessation and 83.2% report that no financial support is given to this policy. When asked about a point for smoking control the majority (72.9%) think of education of staff and half of the sample of reinforcing controls and repression as well as free smoking cessation treatments. Finally, when evaluation of compliance to existing rules is asked an insufficient or absent compliance is reported in 25.4% and the majority (50.7%) reported no smoking cessation clinic or service inside. Due to the low redemption rate, our sample cannot be considered as representative of the national hospital network. However, considering that only managers referring a good or sufficient smoking control have probably answered our questionnaire, we can conclude that the situation enlightened by our sample could be worse but not better in reality. CONCLUSIONS: In Italy the control of smoking in hospitals is far from reached. An implementation of smoking control needs support for cultural changes as well as a comprehensive policy towards smoking staff.

Household and community determinants of exposure to involuntary smoking: a study of urinary cotinine in children and adolescents.

The study examines the role of several potential predictors of urinary cotinine levels in a cross-sectional sample of 1,072 nonsmoking children and adolescents in Latium, Italy, during 1990-1991. As expected, there was a strong relation between passive exposure to smoking and the amount of maternal and paternal self-reported smoking. The urinary cotinine level increased with a decreasing level of paternal education and with an increasing index of household crowding; self-report of recent exposure to smoking outside the home was a strong predictor of the biologic marker. The analysis was then restricted to 346 subjects whose parents claimed that they were nonsmokers and that there were no smokers at home. In this group, however, 57 children reported some active smoking at home by their parents. Those with parents suspected to be "deceivers" had higher level of urinary cotinine than did those truly not exposed. In addition, urinary cotinine in this group was clearly associated with duration of exposure to smoking outside home. The study indicates that both factors related to family circumstances and exposure outside the household setting are strong determinants of urinary cotinine levels. The finding may be considered a direct confirmation that passive smoking among children should be viewed as a specific community responsibility.